LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Class 


FIVE  GOOD  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

By  JOSEPH  V.  WOODWORTH 


These  are  practical  shop  books  for  all  interested  in  accurate  tool  and  die 
making,  steel  treatment,  drop  forging,  die  sinking,  power  presses  and  modern 
shop  practice  in  the  production  of  duplicate  metal  parts. 

Dies:    Their   Construction   and    Use  for  Modern  Working    of 
Sheet  Metals. 

This  is  the  only  practical,  authoritative  book  for  the  die  maker  and  power 
press  user.  ._..--.  Price  $3.00. 

Hardening,  Tempering,  Annealing  and  Forging  of  Steel. 

The  most  up-to-date  book  on  steel  treatment  for  the  practical  steel  worker 
and  the  user  of  tempered  steel  cutting  tools.  -  -  Price  $2.50. 

American  Toolmaking  and  Interchangeable  Manufacturing. 

A  20th  century  shop  reference  book  on  the  very  latest  toolmaking  practice, 
interchangeable  manufacturing  and  machining  of  duplicate  metal  parts. 

Price  $4.00. 
Punches,  Tools  and  Dies  for  Manufacturing  in  Presses. 

A  cyclopedia  of  die  making  practice,  sheet  metal  formation  in  presses,  and 
use  of  punches  and  dies.  -  -  -  -  -  Price  $4.00. 

Drop  Forging,  Die  Sinking  and  Machine  Forming  of  Steel. 

The  only  book  published  on  these  great  branches  of  mechanical  art  and 
modern  shop  practice.  A  mine  of  practical  information  for  the  drop-forger, 
die  sinker  and  steel  parts  manufacturer.  ...  Price  $2.50. 

Power  Presses:  Their  Feeds,  Attachments  and  Safety  Devices. 

If  interested  in  this  book,  send  us  your  name  and  we  will  send  a  descriptive 
circular  of  it,  on  publication.  (In  preparation.) 

of  the  above  books  sent  prepaid  on  receipt  of  the  price 


The  Norman  W.  Henley  Publishing  Company 

132  Nassau  Street  NEW  YORK 


Drop  Forging,  Die  Sinking 
and  Machine  Forming  of  Steel 


MODERN  SHOP  PRACTICE,  PROCESSES,  METHODS, 
MACHINES,  TOOLS  AND  DETAILS 

A  Practical  Treatise  on 

The  Hot  and  Cold  Machine-Forming  of  Steel  and  Iron  into  Finished 

Shapes:     Together  with  Tools,  Dies  and  Machinery  Involved  in  the 

Manufacture  of  Duplicate  Forgings  and  Interchangeable  Hot  and  Cold 

Pressed  Parts  from  Bar  and  Sheet  Metal 

Comprising 

Die  Sinking  and  Drop  Forging  Practice  and  Design  for  Modern  Forging, 
Pressing  and  Stamping  of  Duplicate  Parts  .  .  .  Die  Sinking  Methods, 
Processes,  Machines  and  Tools  .  .  .  Drop  Forging  Dies:  Their  Design, 
Construction  and  Use  in  Drop  Hammer  and  Forging  Machine  .  .  .  Press 
Forming  of  Heavy  Hot  and  Cold  Stock  in  Dies  .  .  .  Drop  Forging  and 
Hardening  Plants :  Their  Designs,  Fundamental  Conditions,and  theEquip- 
ment  Involved  in  Their  Attainment .  .  .  Steel  and  Iron:  Their  Treat- 
ment for  Twisting,  Reducing,  Forging  and  Working  in  Drop  Dies  .  .  . 
Hot  Pressed  Steel  and  Iron  Parts:  Their  Manufacture  and  Assembling 
into  Finished  Products  .  .  .  Drop  Hammers:  Their  Development, Use, 
Weights,  Foundations  and  Dies  .  .  .  Forging  Machine,  Steam  Hammer, 
Bulldozer  and  Swaging  Machine  Methods  and  Processes  .  .  .  Machine 
Forging,  with  Examples  of  Modern  Practice  and  Tools  Involved. 

By 
JOSEPH   V.  ^OODWORTH 

Author  of  " Dies:  Their  Construction  and  Use"  etc. 


CONTAINING  300  ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW  YORK 

THE   NORMAN   W.  HENLEY   PUBLISHING  CO. 

132   NASSAU   STREET 

1911 


/  PREFACE 

The  hot  and  cold  shaping,  squeezing,  forming,  and  bend- 
ing of  duplicate  metal  parts  and  high-speed  steel  cutting 
tools  by  forging  in  drop-dies,  drop-hammers,  steam-ham- 
mers, hydraulic  presses,  and  forging-machines,  are  becoming 
more  appreciated  by  the  most  advanced  manufacturers  and 
mechanics;  but,  until  the  publication  of  this  work,  to  the 
average  mechanic  familiarity  with  the  advanced  shop  prac- 
tise, tools,  and  processes  has  been  denied,  because  of  the  al- 
most total  lack  of  descriptive  practical  literature,  and  also  the 
conservatism  of  manufacturers  and  experts  in  publishing  their 
shop-practise  and  knowledge  evolution.  Therefore,  to  make 
possible  among  mechanics  a  broad  and  comprehensive 
knowledge  of  these  arts  I  present  this  book,  hoping  it  will 
find  a  valuable  and  permanent  place  in  its  field. 

JOSEPH  V.  WOODWORTH. 

BROOKLYN,  N.  Y., 
January,  1911. 


CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTORY Pages  7  to  10 

CHAPTER   I 

DIE-SINKING  AND  DROP-FORGING    PRACTISE  AND  DESIGN    FOR  MODERN 
t  FORGING,    PRESSING,   AND    STAMPING    OF  DUPLICATE   METAL    PARTS 

Drop-Forge  Work — Materials  for,  and  Life  of,  Drop-Forging  Dies 
— Automobile  Shop  Drop-Forging  Practise — Making  a  Die — 
Tools  Employed  in  Making  Dies — The  Lead  Casting  or  Proof 
— Staking  Tools  Used  for  Repairing  Dies — Examples  of  Drop- 
Forging  Dies — Trimming  Dies — Heating  Furnaces — Harden- 
ing Drop-Forging  Dies — Die  Practise  for  Accurate  Forging — 
Method  of  Sinking  a  Drop-Forge  Die — Micrometrical  Forgings 
—Drop-Forging  a  Ratchet  Drill  Handle — Vanadium  Forging 
JDies — Die-Sinking  and  Shop  Practise  in  the  Making  of  Cut- 
ting Tool-Holders  for  Machine  Tools — Drop-Forgings  on  the 
Pacific  Coast — Machining  a  Deep  Forming  Die — Dies  for 
Finishing  Bossed  Levers — Sectional  Dies — Materials  Used  for 
Dies — Principles  of  Drop-Forging  and  Stamping  Large  Parts — 
Removal  of  Fin  Produced  in  Drop-Forging — Difference  Be- 
tween Treatment  of  Steel  and  Wrought  Iron — Work  with 
Holes  Flanged  Through  It — Methods  of  Applying  Impact  or 
Pressure  on  Dies — Methods  Used  for  Making  Dies — Marking 
and  Working  Out  Dies — Typing  or  Hubbing  Process. 

Pages  11  to  61 

CHAPTER   II 

DIE-SINKING   AND    EMBOSSING    PRACTISE   METHODS,    PROCESSES, 
MACHINES,   AND   TOOLS 

Making  Forces  for  Embossed  Work — Properly  Made  Forces — Dif- 
ferent Shaped  Forces — Steel  Forces  for  Flat  Work — Copper  and 
Brass  Forces — Cutting  the  Impression  in  Die-Sinking — Riffles 
and  Their  Use — Drilling  Out  the  Stock — Using  the  Breaking- 
Out  Chisel — The  Champney  Die-Sinking  Process — History 
and  Evolution  of  the  Process — Modeling,  Casting,  and  Drop- 
ping— Driving  Model  Into  the  Die — Heating  and  Hardening 
of  the  Dies — Exactness  of  Size  of  Dies — Final  Development 
of  Champney  Process — Die-Sinking  Machines  — Closed  and 
Open  Dies  for  Forgings — Value  of  Modern  Machinery — 
Prevision  and  Supervision — Hob  for  Making  Forging  Dies. 

Pages  62  to  93 
3 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   III 

DROP-FORGING     DIES,     THEIR     DESIGN,     CONSTRUCTION,     AND     USE     IN 
DROP-HAMMER,   DROP-PRESS,   AND    FORCING-MACHINE 

Combination  Drop-Dies — Union  Between  Metal  Parts — Die-Blocks 
and  Impression-Blocks — Making  Die  to  Resist  Wear — Keying 
Wide-Seat  Dies— First  Principles  in  Holding-Dies — Bolt- 
Heading  Dies — Forging-Press  Dies  for  Making  Hammers — 
Saving  Unnecessary  Movements — Making  a  Double-Faced 
Hammer — The  Finishing  of  the  Dies — Few  Dies  Needed  for 
Forging-Press — Set  of  Tools  for  Forging  a  Fulcrum  Bracket — 
Forging  Dies  for  "Pin-Ends" — Forging  Dies  for  Round  and 
Square  Upsetting — Drop-Forging  Dies  for  Gun-Work — Unusual 
Job  of  Drop-Forging — Trimming  Wrench  Blanks  in  Dies — 
Trimming  Cheap  Hardware — A  Slab-Truck  for  Forge-Shop — 
The  Possibilities  of  Planing-Tools  for  Finishing  Forgings — 
Work  on  Hand-Vise  Forgings — Forging  Under  Steam-Hammer 
— Forging  Large  Pieces — Drop-Hammer  Forging — -Drop-For- 
ging or  Squeezing — Setting  the  Dies — Accurate  Forgings — 
Forging  High-Grade  Steels- — Effects  of  Alloying  Materials — 
Hydraulic  Press  Gives  Best  Results — Heating  Too  Suddenly. 

Pages  94  to  138 

CHAPTER     IV 

DROP-FORGING   AND     HARDENING    PLANTS! DESIGNS,     FUNDAMENTAL 

CONDITIONS,   AND    EQUIPMENT   INVOLVED    IN   THEIR   ATTAINMENT 

The  Drop-Forge  and  Hardening  Plant— Drop-Forge  and  Hardening" 
Departments  Under  One  Roof — Location  of  Die-Sinking  De- 
partment— Board,  Steam,  Helve,  Trip,  and  Drop  Hammers — 
Plan  of  Modern  Drop-Forge  and  Hardening  Plant — Layout  of 
Hardening  Department — Advantages  of  Oil  Fuel — Refitted 
Coal-Forges  and  Furnaces  for  Fuel-Oil — Arrangement  of  Pi- 
ping— Finishing  Department — Oil-Burning  Forges  and  Heaters 
— Single  and  Double  Opening  Forge  Furnaces — Top-Slot  and 
End-Heating  Forges — Installation  of  Forges — Burners — Brazing 
Furnaces — Heaters Pages  139  to  162 


CHAPTER   V 

DROP-HAMMERS:  THEIR  DEVELOPMENT,  WEIGHTS,  FOUNDATIONS,  AND 

DIES 

The  Development  of  the  Drop-Hammer — Counterbalanced  Treadle 
— Compound  Lever  Device  for  Operating  the  Lifting  or  Head 
Mechanism — Jointed  Swinghead  Construction — Paper  Pulleys 


CONTENTS  5 

— Method  of  Fastening  Board  in  Hammer — Foundations — 
Ratio  of  Base  as  Compared  with  Weight  of  Hammer — Founda- 
tions for  Drop-Hammers — Drop-Hammer  Effects — The  Ambler 
Drop-Hammer  —  Securing  Hammer-Heads  —  Hammer-Dies — 
Improved  and  Up-to-Date  Drop-Hammer — Capacity  of  Steam- 
Hammers  and  Size  of  Work — Rules  for  Finding  the  Capacity 
of  Steam-Hammers,  and  the  Horse-Power  Required  for  Opera- 
tion— Development  of  Steam  Drop-Hammers. 

Pages  163  to  185 

CHAPTER   VI 

STEEL  AND    IRON:     TWISTING,    REDUCING,   AND    FORGING TREATMENT 

FOR    WORKING    IN    MACHINE-FORGING 

Action  of  Steel  and  Iron  Under  Different  Degrees  of  Heat — Ma- 
terials Used  in  Experiments — Fuel  Used  in  Tests — Practical 
Results  of  Experiments — Working  Stock  in  Drop-Dies — Facil- 
ities for  Reproduction  of  Drop-Dies — Spoiling  Dies — The  Dies 
and  the  Drop — Economy  of  Dies — Practical  Effect  of  Working 
Iron — Effect  of  Drops  on  Stock — Working  in  Drop  and  Bend- 
ing Machine — Improved  Anvil  Block Pages  186  to  202 


CHAPTER   VII 

PRESS  AND  HAMMER  FORMING  OF  HEAVY  HOT  AND  COLD  BAR  AND 
SHEET  STOCK  IN  DIES,  TOGETHER  WITH  MANUFACTURE  AND 
ASSEMBLING  OF  FINISHED  PRODUCTS  FROM  SUCH 

Making  a  Wheelbarrow  Wheel — Operations  on  Wheel — Making  the 
Flanges — Pressed-Steel  Gears — How  Metal  Wheels  are  Made — 
Wheel  Tire  Making — Steel  Wheels — Early  History  of  Chain- 
Making — A  New  Method  of  Making  Weldless  Chains — Dies 
for  Weldless  Chains — Modern  Methods  of  Manufacturing 
Welded  Chain — Former  Method  of  Making  Chain — Present 
Method  of  Making  Welded  Chain — The  Link-Winder — The 
Link-Cutter — The  Welding  Machine — The  Die — The  Process 
of  Welding Pages  203  to  240 


CHAPTER   VIII 

FORCING-MACHINE,      STEAM-HAMMER,      BULLDOZER,     AND     SWAGING- 
MACHINE    METHODS    AND    PROCESSES 

Handy  Bulldozer  Appurtenances — Tack  and  Tack-Dies — Tack- 
Making  Tools  and  Their  Action — A  Rapid-Action  Hydraulic 
Forging-Press — Tremendous  Pressure  of  the  Hydraulic  Press — 
Operation  of  Process — Pressure  for  Small  Work — Hot-Pressed 


CONTENTS 

Nut-Machine — A  Large  Hydraulic  Forging-Machine — Making 
Elevator  Buckets  with  the  Steam-Hammer — Locomotive  For- 
gings  made  in  Hydraulic  Machine — A  Job  for  the  Heavy  Swa- 
ging-Machine — Drop-Forging  for  the  Ajax  Forging-Machine 
— A  Rock-Drill  Used  as  a  Steam-Hammer — Shear  for  Cutting 
Off  Iron Pages  241  to  274 


CHAPTER   IX 

MACHINE-FORGING,      WITH     EXAMPLES      OF     MODERN     PRACTISE     AND 

TOOLS    INVOLVED 

Machine-Forging  —  Manufacturing  Connecting-Rods  for  Steam- 
Engines — Die  for  Turning  Eye-Bolts — Forging  with  Dies  in  a 
Railroad  Shop — The  Advantage  of  Special  Tools  in  Forging — 
Forging  Without  Special  Tools — Ten  Thousand  Ton  Press  at 
the  Dusseldorf  Exhibition Pages  275  to  292 


CHAPTER   X 

HYDRAULIC    FORGING    METHODS,   AUTOGENOUS    WELDING    AND 
GENERAL   SHOP    PRACTISE 

Hydraulic  Forging — Description  of  Hydraulic  Press — Examples 
of  Production — Proper  Practise  for  Hydraulic  Forgings — 
Some  Applications  of  Autogenous  Welding — Heating  Metal 
Before  Welding — Fuel  for  Preheating — W7elding  Conclusions 
— Built-Up  or  Welded-Up  Die  Work— General  Practise  for 
Hardening  Drop-Dies  of  Various  Steels Pages  293  to  308 


CHAPTER   XI 

HIGH-SPEED    STEEL,    DROP,    AND   HYDRAULIC   FORGED   CUTTING   TOOLS, 
DROP-PRESS    PRACTISE,    AND    HARDENING   DROP-DIES 

What  is  Good  Judgment — High-Speed  Steel  and  Tool-Holders — 
Combination  Tool-Holders  and  Their  Use — Economy  in  Use 
of  Tool-Holders — Forging  the  High-Speed  Steel-Cutting  Points 
—The  Drop-Press  in  Flat-Ware  Operations — Foundations  for 
Flat- Ware  Drop-Presses — Holding  Dies  in  Drop-Presses — Dies 
for  Making  Flat-Ware — Treatment  and  Use  of  Dies  for  Flat- 
Ware — Correct  and  Reliable  Method  for  Hardening  Drop- 
Hammer  Dies  Without  Loss — More  Losses  in  Winter-Time 
than  in  Summer — Temperature  of  Cooling  \Vater — Have  Plenty 
of  Supply-Pipes  for  Water — Hardening  the  Die — Drawing  the 
Temper— Cool  the  Die  Thoroughly Pages  309  to  329 


INTRODUCTORY 

VERY  little  of  value  has  been  written  on  drop-forgings, 
die-sinking,  the  machine-forming  of  steel,  and  the  shop  prac- 
tise involved,  as  it  actually  exists  in  the  modern  drop-forging 
shop,  Here  and  there,  a  solitary  die  or  device  has  been  pic- 
tured and  described,  or  a  few  sketches  made  of  dies  that  may 
have  been  entirely  imaginary,  so  far  as  can  be  learned  from 
any  evidence  offered,  and  which  are  of  such  simple  and  ele- 
mentary nature  as  to  convey  no  adequate  idea  whatever  of  the 
magnitude  and  difficulty  of  the  work  to  any  one  not  familiar 
with  it.  This  class  of  contributions  covers  the  greater  part  of 
what  has  been  published  on  a  subject  that  has  grown  and 
developed  from  the  hand-forging  process  of  the  hammer  and 
anvil,  to  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  modern 
machine  industry. 

Hundreds  of  parts  that  were  formerly  cast  from  malleable 
iron,  or  hand-forged  from  bar  stock,  are  now  drop-forged, 
the  extra  cost  being  more  than  made  up  by  the  uniformity, 
strength,  and  reliability  of  the  product;  and  no  one  has  been 
quicker  to  realize  this  than  the  really  live,  up-to-date  automo- 
bile manufacturer,  to  whom  the  mechanical  world  is  indebted 
for  so  many  other  valuable  mechanical  developments. 

The  history  of  die-sinking  and  drop-forging  goes  back 
fifty  years  or  more  in  New  England.  In  the  blacksmith-shops 
of  the  original  "Yankee  Toolmakers,"  a  limited  amount  of 
work  had  been  previously  done  in  dies  for  as  long  a  period, 
but  only  or  chiefly  in  order  to  impart  a  "finish"  to  work 
which  had  been  already  hand-forged  and  nearly  completed  at 
the  anvil.  This  practise  was  necessarily  adopted  in  order  to 
attain  uniformity,  in  a  number  of  similar  forgings,  econom- 
ically. Such  uniformity  could  only  be  produced  on  the  anvil 

7 


8  INTRODUCTORY 

with  the  common  tools  of  the  smith,  at  the  sacrifice  of  much 
time  and  labor.  Hence,  long  before  the  practise  of  producing 
forgings  by  drop-dies  or  machine  forging,  comparative  inter- 
changeability  was  eventually  attained  in  anvil-made  forgings 
by  means  of  dies  used  in  the  power-hammer.  The  dies,  even 
then,  were  often  in  sectional  form,  as  they  remain  to-day  when 
heavy  forgings  are  required. 

The  making  of  drop-forging  dies,  together  with  the  hard- 
ening process  through  which  they  are  put  and  the  methods  of 
using  them,  is  a  trade  by  itself,  though  closely  allied  to  tool 
and  die  making  as  understood  in  the  big  shops  of  to-day. 
Each  branch  of  shop-work  presents  its  individual  problems, 
and  a  tool  and  die  maker,  though  skilled  in  other  lines,  can- 
not go  into  a  forging-shop  and  make  dies  without  special 
instructions,  training,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  practise  in- 
volved. 

In  drop-forging  die-work,  as  in  other  kinds  of  tool-work, 
there  are  various  grades  of  accuracy  and  finish  required. 
Some  forgings  must  come  from  the  hammer  practically  fin- 
ished to  size,  while  others  are  made  large  enough  to  allow 
considerable  machining.  Where  only  a  few  pieces  of  rough 
nature  are  required,  little  skill  is  needed  in  making  or  main- 
tenance of  the  dies,  but  where  small,  accurate  parts  are  to  be 
made  in  large  quantities,  special  tools  for  both  hand  and 
machine  use  are  necessary,  and  trained,  skilful  diemakers  are 
needed,  as  well  as  a  careful  selection  of  the  steel  used. 

The  employment  of  drop-forging  and  the  production  of 
hot  and  cold  pressed  parts  of  the  nature  referred  to  in  the  fore- 
going, are  increasing  constantly  and  rapidly.  A  large  number 
of  firms  are  now  equipped  with  machinery  used  exclusively 
for  this  class  of  work,  and  they  supply  enormous  numbers  of 
forgings  to  manufacturers  of  metal-working  machinery,  au- 
tomobiles, railroad-cars,  car-parts,  and  innumerable  users  of 
metal  parts. 

Drop-forgings  and  pressed  metal  parts  bear  the  same  rela- 
tion to  the  work  of  the  blacksmith-shop  that  machine-molded 
castings  bear  to  that  of  the  foundry.  In  both  cases,  the  skilled 


INTRODUCTORY  9 

mechanic  and  his  labor  are  dispensed  with.  In  each  instance 
the  finished  product  has  the  advantage  of  much  greater  accu- 
racy and  uniformity  in  shape  and  dimensions.  The  numbers 
turned  from  the  dies,  as  from  the  molding  machines,  are  often 
thirty  to  forty  times  as  great  as  those  which  are  produced  by 
hand  by  skilled  men.  In  both  cases,  too,  the  question  of 
machining  is  often  inseparable  from  that  of  the  methods  of 
production  adopted,  because  accuracy  of  shape  and  uniformity 
of  dimensions  in  forgings  and  castings  alike  are  favorable  to 
the  most  economical  machining,  since  allowances  which  are 
either  insufficient  or  excessive  for  the  machines  are  equally 
undesirable  and  troublesome.  Thq  blacksmith  working  at 
the  anvil,  even  with  the  help  offered  by  templets  and  gages, 
is  unable  to  produce  two  pieces — to  say  nothing  of  twenty 
intricate  and  elaborate  pieces — absolutely  alike,  unless  at  an 
enormous  expenditure  of  time.  It  is  cheaper,  therefore,  and 
is  the  practise  to  leave  plenty  of  surplus  surface  stock  to  insure 
that  the  work  shall  finish  up  all  over  when  machined;  other- 
wise the  final  finishing  would  occupy  much  time,  even  more 
than  that  required  for  the  formative  work  of  forging.  But 
forgings  which  are  dropped  or  machine  finished — that  is  drop- 
forged — all  come  exactly  alike  from  the  dies;  and  interchange- 
ability  to  the  desired  degree  is  attained  in  the  initial  process, 
without  extra  care  or  time  spent  on  the  part  of  the  workman. 
Moreover,  since  the  allowance,  or  surplus  stock  left,  is  small 
in  amount  and  regular,  pickling  can  be  more  usefully  prac- 
tised than  when  allowances  are  excessive. 

The  accuracy  of  forgings — machine  and  die  produced — 
however,  is  further  advantageous  in  the  fact  that  a  consider- 
able amount  of  machining  is  often  avoided  altogether.  The 
smooth,  glossy,  polished,  and  accurate  surfaces  left  from  the 
dies  are  often  good  enough  for  handles,  levers,  and  numerous 
other  parts.  Or  if  they  are  required  to  be  polished  bright  for 
good  appearance,  then  a  polished  surface  imparted  by  emery- 
wheel,  buff,  or  tumbling  barrel  is  sufficient,  without  any 
more  machining  in  the  lathe,  shaper,  or  milling  machine. 
Punched  holes  may  be  simply  lapped,  instead  of  being 


10  INTRODUCTORY 

drilled  and  reamed,  the  locations  of  the  holes  being  fixed  with 
accuracy  by  the  dies. 

The  process  of  die-sinking  relates  to  the  engraving  or 
sinking  of  the  female  or  lower  dies,  such  as  are  used  for  drop- 
forgings,  hot  and  cold  machine  forging,  swedging,  and  the 
press  working  of  metals.  The  process  of  force-making  relates 
to  the  engraving  or  raising  of  the  male  or  upper  dies  used  in 
producing  the  lower  dies  for  the  press-forming  and  machine- 
forging  of  duplicate  parts  of  metal. 


CHAPTER  I 

DIE-SINKING  AND  DROP- FORGING  PRACTISE  AND  DESIGN  FOR 
MODERN  FORGING,  PRESSING,  AND  STAMPING  OF  DUPLICATE 
METAL  PARTS 

DROP-FORGE  WORK 

Materials  for,  and  Life  ofy  Drop-Forging  Dies 

STEEL,  cast  into  blocks,  is  not  suitable  for  drop-forging 
dies,  as  flaws  or  blow-holes  are  likely  to  develop  where  least 
expected  or  desired;  so,  as  a  general  rule,  forged  blocks 
of  open-hearth  crucible  steel  are  used.  These  blocks  are 
either  purchased  ready  forged,  in  various  sizes,  from  the  steel 
manufacturers,  or  are  forged  in  the  shop  where  they  are  used — 
the  former  plan  being  the  usual  one. 

A  rough  estimate  as  to  the  average  life  of  a  drop-forging 
die,  used  for  medium-sized  work  on  Bessemer  steel,  is  given 
by  a  foreman  of  long  experience,  as  about  four  thousand 
pieces.  Some  dies  might  be  broken  immediately  when  put  in 
operation,  while  others  might  stand  for  a  hundred  thousand 
pieces  or  more. 

Automobile  Shop  Drop-Forging  Practise 

The  Figs.  1  to  22  and  the  data  relating  to  them  were  ob- 
tained in  the  factory  of  Thomas  B.  Jeffery  &  Co.,  Kenosha, 
Wis.  This  company's  drop-forging  plant  is  far  ahead  of 
anything  outside  of  the  big  concerns  that  make  a  specialty  of 
drop-forgings,  and  consists  of  a  well-lighted,  finely  equipped 
tool-room,  used  only  for  drop-forge  die-work,  a  thoroughly 
up-to-date  hardening  plant,  and  a  big  building  full  of  steam- 
hammers,  punch-presses,  heating  furnaces,  and  every  appli- 
ance necessary  for  first-class  work. 

11 


12 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


The  greater  part  of  the  drop-forgings  made  here  are  of 
Bessemer  steel  bar,  though  some  of  the  more  particular  auto- 


FIG.  1. — Planing  a  die-block  on  a  shaper. 

mobile  fittings  are  made  of  special  grades  of  tool-steel.     All 
of  the  drop-forging  dies  are  of  the  highest  class,  calling  for 


FIG.  2. — A  pair  of  typical  drop-forging  dies  and  their  work. 


DROP- FORGE   WORK 


13 


the  best  die-making  skill,  and  necessitating  a  great  deal  of 
hand-work  in  addition  to  the  most  accurate  machining. 

Making  a  Die 

In  trie  original  outlining  of  a  set  of  drop-forging  dies,  the 
measurements  for  the  forking  cavities  may  be  taken  from  a 


FIG.  3. — Profiling  machine  used  in  die-sinking. 

blue-print  supplied  by  the  drafting-room,  or  they  may  be 
taken  from  a  piece  already  made-5 — possibly  a  forging  or  lead 
casting  obtained  from  some  former  set  of  dies,  or  perhaps  a 


1   ;  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

piece  made  up  for  a  model.  Sometimes  a  sheet-metal  templet 
is  made  to  assist  in  obtaining  the  desired  shape  of  the  die 
cavities,  while  in  other  cases  only  the  outline  scribed  on  the 


FIG.  4. — Finishing  die,  Fig.  2,  on  the  profiling  machine,  Fig.  3. 

coppered  surface,  together  with  the  necessary  measurements, 
is  needed.  The  size  and  outline  of  the  forging  to  be  made, 
as  well  as  the  accuracy  required,  govern  the  method  of  pro- 
cedure. 

The  die-blocks,  which,  as  already  stated,  are    forged  of 
open-hearth   crucible  steel,  are  first  placed  in  a  shaper  and 


DROP-FORGE    WORK 


15 


carefully  surfaced  off  to  the  required  dimensions,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  1.  These  blocks  are  always  made  oversize,  so  that 
enough  of  the  surface  can  be  machined  off  to  insure  good, 
sound  metal  to  work  on. 

The  outlines  for  the  breaking  down  or  roughing,  the  fin- 
ishing, and  sometimes  the  bending  forms  are  then  laid  off  on 
the  coppered  surface,  and  the  cavities  roughed  out  on  the 
drill  press  or  lathe,  as  the  case  may  require,  or  on  the  profiling 
machine,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3.  The  same  set  of  dies  shown  in 


FIG.  5. — Special  "Ball  Vise"  used  in  sinking  drop-forging  dies. 

his  figure  is  shown  still  further  roughed  out  in  Fig.  2.  The 
hape  of  the  forging  to  be  made  in  this  set  of  dies  is  shown 
it  the  top  of  Fig.  2,  and  it  is  a  foot  pedal  for  a  clutch- 
ever.  The  channel  for  the  fin,  or  " flash/'  which  is  formed 
n  the  finishing  operation,  is  plainly  shown  in  the  middle 
avities. 

The  letters  CLUTCH,  were  first  lightly  stamped  on 
he  metal  with  special  steel  letters,  to  get  the  outline;  then 
hey  were  chiseled  out,  and  finally  finished  by  driving  in  the 
teel  letters  to  smooth  up  the  roughness  caused  by  chiseling. 

Fig.  4  shows  the  final  cuts  being  taken  on  the  breaking- 


16 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC, 


down  part  of  this  die,  the  rest  of  the  work    consisting    of 
scraping,  gouging,  and  chiseling. 

Tools  Employed  in  Making  Dies 

For  the  hand-work,  the  die  is  held  in  a  special  "ball  vise" 
which  is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  A  vise  of  this  type  is  the  handiest 
device  imaginable  for  heavy  die-work.  This  illustration  also 
shows  the  breaking-down  part  a  little  more  clearly  than  the 
previous  examples. 

Fig.  6  shows  a  few  of  the  tools,  scrapers,  and  rifflers  used 
in  the  finishing  work.  These  are  mostly  made  of  old  files, 


FIG.  6. — Scrapers,  files,  rifflers,  etc.,  used  by  die-sinkers. 

and  are  ground  or  bent  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  particular 
cases. 

In  Fig.  7  are  some  of  the  milling  tools  that  have  been 
made  especially  for  this  work.  Only  twenty-four  of  them  are 
shown,  though  several  hundred  of  all  shapes  and  sizes  are  in 
stock.  Another  set  of  special  cutters  is  shown  in  Fig.  8. 
Two  of  these  have  a  single  inserted  blade  or  "fly-cutter"  held 
in  place  by  a  set  screw,  and  are  very  useful  tools  for  some 
kinds  of  work. 


DROP-FORGE   WORK 


17 


FIG.  7. — A  few  milling-tools  used  in  die-sinking. 

The  tools  shown  in  Fig.  9  are  known  as  " types,"  and  are 
used  in  scraping  out  cylindrical  cavities  to  size.  These  types 
are  turned  to  the  proper  size,  and  when  used  are  smeared  with 


FIG.  8. — Milling-tools  used  in  die-sinking,  with  example 
of  fly-cutters. 


18 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 


red  lead  and  rocked  back  and  forth  in  the  partly  finished  cav- 
ity. The  metal  is  then  scraped  away  wherever  the  lead'shows. 
For  cylindrical  work,  these  types  are  indispensable  tools. 

The  tools  shown  in  Fig.  10  were  made  by  one  of  the 
expert  die-sinkers  in  the  Jeffery  shop.  The  tool  shown  at  the 
right  is  used  to  scribe  an  outline  from  a  forging.  It  consists 
of  a  hardened  steel  blade,  with  a  point  on  one  end,  set  into  a 
flat  steel  block  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  free  to  move  up  and 


n 


FlG.  9. — "Typing"  tools  used  by  die-sinkers  to  form  circular 

cavities. 

down  to  a  limited  extent.  The  rivet  shown  on  the  side  is  passed 
through  a  short  slot  in  the  blade.  When  in  use,  a  flat  spring 
on  the  top  edge  of  the  tool  presses  the  point  downward  onto 
the  coppered  surface,  causing  a  mark  wherever  moved.  To 
use  this  tool,  it  is  held  on  edge  with  the  point  down  and  the 
edge  of  the  hardened  blade  in  contact  with  the  forging.  The 
steel  block  keeps  the  blade  perpendicular,  and  by  keeping  the 
edge  of  the  blade  in  contact  with  the  forging  while  scraping, 
a  correct  outline  is  obtained,  which  could  not  be  done  with  an 
ordinary  scriber  on  account  of  the  working  outline  being  con- 
siderably above  the  die  face. 


DROP-FORGE    WORK 


19 


f 


tor 


FIG.  10. — Vernier  caliper-depth  gage,  inside  micrometer 
and  scribing-block. 

The  middle  tool  shown  in  Fig.  10  is  a  one-inch  inside 
micrometer,  which  was  made  by  the  die-sinker  because  he 
could  not  buy  one  small  enough  for  the  purpose.  The  other 


i 


FIG.  11. — Samples  of  lead-castings  or  proofs  from  drop-forging 
dies  for  testing  accuracy  of  outline. 


20 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 


tool  is  a  regular  stock  caliper  square,  to  which  has  been  added 
a  depth  gage.  The  gage  is  made  so  that  the  rod  projects  the 
same  distance  that  the  caliper  jaws  are  apart.  The  usefulness 
and  convenience  of  this  tool  are  at  once  apparent  to  a  tool- 
maker. 

The  Lead  Casting  or  Prooj 

After  the  mechanical  work  on  a  set  of  dies  is  done,  a  lead 
casting  of  the  cavity  is  made  and  sent  to  the  superintendent 


FIG.  12. — Staking-tools  used  for  repairing  dies. 

to  be  passed  upon.  If  it  is  correct,  the  dies  are  hardened  and 
sent  to  the  forging-shop,  but  if  it  is  off  size  or  shape,  or  for 
any  reason  not  satisfactory,  suitable  changes  are  made,  and 
another  lead  impression  taken  and  passed  upon  as  before. 
Fig.  1 1  shows  a  number  of  these  lead  castings,  which  are  kept 
in  the  tool-room  for  reference,  and  they  often  save  considera- 
ble trouble  when  duplicating  dies. 

Staking-Tools   Used  for  Repairing  Dies 

After  a  set  of  dies  has  been  in  use  for  some  time,  the  dies 
are  likely  to  develop  cracks  or  drawing  seams  which  cause 


DROP- FORGE    WORK  21 

ridges  and  rough  spots  on  the  forgings.  These  cracks  are 
closed  up  by  hammering  first  on  one  side  and  then  on  the 
other  with  a  hammer,  and  what  are  called  "staking  tools," 
which  are  simply  special  shaped,  tempered  steel  punches  made 
of  chisel-steel  stock.  Some  of  these  staking  tools  are  shown 
in  Fig.  12. 

Examples  of  Drop-Forging  Dies 

One-half  of  a  die  set,  showing  the  breaking-down  and  fin- 
ishing forms,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  13.     In  this  illustration 


FIG.  13. — An  example  of  drop-forging  die,  showing  breaking- 
down  die  at  the  right. 

the  method  of  leaving  a  ridge  around  the  finishing  form  and 
cutting  a  channel  for  the  fin  is  very  plainly  shown.  This 
method  is  followed  in  all  of  the  drop-dies  made  at  the  Jeffery 
shops.  Fig.  14  shows  a  more  complicated  die.  In  this,  both 
edging  and  flatting  breaking-down  die  forms  are  shown.  In 
using  this  die,  the  hot  bar  from  which  the  forging  is  being 
made,  is  alternately  swung  from  one  to  the  other  form,  it 
being  held  edgewise  in  one  and  flat  in  the  other,  and  given  a 
blow  or  two  until  sufficiently  reduced  for  the  finishing  form, 


22 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


FIG.  14. — Drop-forging  die,  showing  both  edging  and  flatting 
breaking-down  dies. 

after  which  it  is  cut  off  from  the  bar  by  a  shear  fastened  to  the 
hammer  at  one  side  of  the  die-block. 

In  Fig.  15  the  roughing  or  breaking-down  die  is  shown, 
and  also  a  bending  form,  the  bar  being  roughed  into  shape, 


FIG.  15.— Drop-forging  die,  showing  bending-form  in  front. 


DROP-FORGE   WORK  23 

and  then  bent  and  finished.     Of  course,   in  these  two  last 
illustrations  it  is  understood  that  the  cuts  show  only  one-half 


FIG.  16. — Drop-forging  die  and  bending-die  for  steering  gear  part. 

of  the  set,  the  other  half  corresponding  in  shape  to  the  one 
shown   in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  the  desired  shape.     To 


FIG.  17. — Forging  die  to  die  in  Fig.  16. 


24 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


better  illustrate  this  for  the  benefit  of  those  not  familiar  with 
the  class  of  work,  both  halves  of  a  set  of  dies  are  shown  in 
Figs.  16  and  17.  These  show  the  complete  forging  and  bend- 
ing parts  for  this  particular  piece.  The  end  of  the  finishing 
form  also  shows  a  place  where  one  of  the  types  illustrated  in 
Fig.  9  was  used  when  first  working  out  the  cavity. 

Trimming  Dies 

Some  of  the  forgings  are  of  such  shape  that  the  fin  or  flash 
produced  is  easily  ground  or  machined  off,  while  others  are 


FIG.  18. — Drop-forging  die  for  wrench  and  trimming-die  for  same. 

put  through  a  trimming-die.  These  trimming-dies  are  about 
the  same  as  the  trimming-dies  used  for  other  classes  of  work, 
and  so  need  but  little  description.  Fig.  1 8  shows  a  set  of 
forging  and  trimming  dies  used  for  making  automobile 
wrenches.  The  breaking-down  form  is  very  plainly  shown, 
as  is  also  the  finishing  cavity.  The  trimming-punch  is  at  one 
side,  while  the  trimming-die  in  the  middle  is  shown  made  up 
of  four  separate  parts.  This  is  done  because  the  die  parts 
that  shear  out  the  wrench  slots  wear  or  break  sooner  than 
the  rest  of  the  die,  and  when  made  this  way  they  are  easily 


DROP- FORGE    WORK  25 

replaced  without  necessitating  a  wholly  new  die,  which  would 
be  the  case  if  made  solid. 


FIG.  19. — A  few  examples  of  drop-forging  dies  in  storag 

Fig.  19  shows  a  number  of  dies  on  the  storage  shelves, 
only  one-half  of  each  being  shown,  the  other  half  of  each  set 


FIG.  20. — Oil-heating  furnaces  and  drop-hammer. 


26  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 

being  back  of  the  one  visible.  The  trimming-dies  which  are 
in  constant  use  are  kept  conveniently  near  the  presses  in  the 
forge-room.  Both  trimming  and  forging  dies  are  stored  on 
heavy  shelves  close  to  where  they  are  used,  thus  saving  the 
unnecessary  " toting"  that  is  practised  in  so  many  shops. 

Heating  Furnaces 

The  heating  furnaces  in  a  forging-shop  must  be  set  near 
the  hammers,  and   Fig.   20  shows  how  the  oil   furnaces  are 


FIG.  21. — Brown  &  Sharpe  heating  and  annealing  furnaces 

placed,  so  that  little  time  is  lost  in  getting  the  heated  metal  to 
the  hammers.  Fig.  21  is  an  illustration  of  two  of  the  big 
Brown  &  Sharpe  furnaces  in  the  hardening-room.  For  small 
work  several  smaller  furnaces  are  used,  but  those  shown  are 
used  for  large  work,  and  are  said  to  be  the  best  obtainable. 

Hardening  Drop-Forging  Dies 

In  hardening  drop-dies  only  the  face  is  hardened.  The 
die  is  heated  and  placed  face  down  in  a  tank  of  water  on  a  sort 
of  a  spider  support,  and  a  stream  of  water  pours  upward  onto 
it.  Fig.  22  shows  how  this  is  done.  In  the  illustration  a 


DROP-FORGE   WORK  27 

round  piercing  die  is  being  hardened,  so  that  the  water  appears 
to  be  boiling  up  through  the  center,  which  would  not  be  the 
case  were  it  a  solid  block  like  a  forging  die.  Large  special 
shaped  tongs  make  the  handling  of  the  heavy  steel  blocks  of 
the  drop-forge  dies  comparatively  easy. 

Die  Practise  for  Accurate  Forging 

The  tendency  of  late  years  to  turn  out  a  better  class  of 
forgings  than  formerly  is  becoming  general,  I  am  glad  to  say, 


FIG.  22. — Hardening  the  face  of  a  drop-forging  die. 

and  the  adoption  of  machinery  for  this  class  of  work  is,  I 
know,  accountable  more  than  anything  else  for  the  improve- 
ment; the  desire  to  cut  off  work  in  the  machine-shop  being 
also  a  factor.  Be  that  as  it  may,  the  dies  for  such  nice  and 
accurate  work  must  first  pass  through  the  machine-shop.  It 
is  a  pretty  rough  and  scaly  job  that  comes  from  dies  that  have 
not  been  properly  fitted  up  to  match  accurately  and  with  a 
smooth  finish. 

In  the  production  of  good  work,  the  metal  of  which  the 
dies  are  made  is  of  the  first  importance.  While  gray  iron 
answers  the  purpose  for  a  time,  such  dies  soon  batter  and 


28 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 


FIG.  23.— Steel  blank  for  die. 


crush,  and  the  scale  from  hot  iron  wears  into  the  surface  and 
causes  rough  work,  unless  they  are  overhauled  frequently. 
Basic  steel  would  be  an  improvement  if  the  blow-holes  could 
be  eliminated,  but  it  seems  that  few  perfect  castings  are  pro- 
duced of  this  material.  Tool-steel  is  very  costly,  but  from 
my  experience  it  fully  pays  for  light  dies  where  forgings  are 
standard  and  got  out  in  large  numbers. 

The  plan  I  have  followed  to  save  steel  answers  the  purpose 
very  nicely,  and  only  takes  about  one-third  stock  as  ordinarily 

used.  Fig.  23  shows  the 
blank  steel  for  the  die-face, 
shaped  for  the  purpose  under 
a  steam-hammer.  Fig.  24  is 
a  cast-iron  die-holder,  fitting 
and  keyed  into  the  anvil- 
block  as  in  ordinary  practise.  A  ^s-inch  steel  pin  is  driven 
into  the  center  deep  enough  to  give  it  a  good  bearing — about 
\y2  inches  deep — with  the  top  tapered 
and  projecting  about  1  inch  to  let  into 
the  steel  face.  This  secures  the  steel  face 
to  its  place  and  two  keys  driven,  one  from 
the  back  and  the  other  from  the  front, 
complete  the  arrangement  as  shown  in 
Fig.  25.  The  cast  die-holder  answers  for 
all  different  shapes  used,  and  does  not 
have  to  be  removed  unless  it  is  wanted  in  machining  the  dies. 
The  shapes  should  be  made  A  inch 
large  and  the  recesses  as  smooth  as  pos- 
sible, and  if  sprayed  with  water  when  in 
use  they  give  a  nice  finish  to  the  for- 
gings if  the  fuel  is  clean  and  free  from 
sulfur. 

Oil  is  very  largely  used  now  for 
heating  forgings,  and  it  certainly  does 
nice  work,  and  leaves  the  iron  with  a 

surface  without  holes  or  scarred  places,  besides  making  the 
iron  easier  to  work  and  heating  the  piece  uniformly.     From 


FIG.  24. — Cast-iron 
die-holder. 


FIG.  25.— Die-holder 
and  die  assembled. 


DROP-FORGE    WORK  29 

my  experience  with  oil  for  heating  and  with  steel  dies  for  the 
hammer,  I  can  say  that  there  is  no  reason  why  forgings  cannot 
be  made  which  will  require  practically  no  machine-work  and 
very  little  grinding  and  file-work  to  make  them  fit  their  re- 
spective places. 

Method  of  Sinking  a  Drop-Forge  Die 

To  sink  a  pair  of  forging  dies  for  the  breech  or  butt  of  a 
gun  involves  a  great  deal  of  hand-work  and  a  considerable 
amount  of  care,  if  one  is  to  do  a  good  job.  There  were  several 
pairs  of  such  dies  to  sink  at  one  time,  and  the  purpose  here  is 
to  show  my  readers  how  a  scheme  was  devised  to  make  the 
machine  help  some  on  the  job. 

The  die-maker  was  too  much  of  a  Yankee  to  have  a  great 
desire  for  hard  work,  and  if  there  was  any  ahead  of  him  he 
was  apt  to  work  his  gray  matter  overtime  if  necessary  to  get  a 
scheme  to  avoid  it.  The  one  shown  by  the  sketches  in  Fig. 
26  did  not  eliminate  all  the  hand-work,  but  it  did  help  a  lot. 

A  shows  the  piece  which  was  to  be  forged — the  well- 
known  butt  plate  of  a  military  rifle.  The  dies  were  what  are 
termed  " match  face,"  and  are  shown  by  b  and  c,  b  being  the 
bottom  and  c  the  top  die  in  the  drop. 

The  plate  was  to  be  redropped — that  is,  forged,  pickled 
to  remove  scale,  and  redropped  at  a  heat  so  low  that  it  would 
not  scale,  thus  giving  a  surface  which  could  be  finished  on  the 
polishing  wheel,  and  the  edges  only  were  machined. 

The  entire  bottom  of  the  first  pair  was  chipped  and  filed, 
and  when  samples  were  secured  the  military  inspector  put  his 
micrometer  on  them  just  as  cheerfully  as  he  did  on  a  piece  of 
machined  work,  and  insisted  that  they  come  within  two  thou- 
sandths of  the  drawing  at  the  two  thickest  points,  they  being 
the  only  places  where  he  could  apply  his  caliper.  All  argu- 
ment was  in  vain;  he  must  have  some  samples  like  the  print, 
and  to  get  them  out  of  this  pair  of  dies  involved  a  lot  of  scra- 
ping and  grinding  on  the  tempered  die,  accompanied  by  lots 
of  uncharitable  remarks  about  the  inspector. 

Visions  of  the  pairs  of  dies  to  follow  haunted  the  die- 


30 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


maker  in  the  small  hours  of  the  night,  and  caused  the  making 
of  the  former  plate  d  and  cutter  e,  which  solved  the  problem 
nicely. 

The  line  k  on  d  was  filed  as  near  to  shape  as  possible, 
secured  on  the  die  b  by  the  pin-holes  shown,  and  a  cut  made 


FIG.  26. — Die-sinking  for  butt  plate  of  a  military  rifle. 

with  the  cutter  e  ;  x  acting  as  a  former-pin,  a  strip  of  lead  was 
then  placed  in  the  cut  and  the  dies  squeezed  together,  giving, 
a  form  which  could  be  measured  with  a  micrometer,  and  by 
filing  and  cutting  in  this  manner  the  die-maker  was  able  'to 
get  a  templet  or  former  that  corresponded  exactly  with  the 
drawing.  With  this  former  and  the  cutter  e  the  dies  were 
quickly  machined,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  on  by  and  an 


DROP- FORGE    WORK  31 

accmate  outline  secured  at  every  point  where  the  inspector 
could  apply  his  gage. 

There  were  lots  of  chipping  and  filing  left  still,  but  the  cut, 
exact  as  to  form  and  depth,  was  a  great  help  and  gave  assur- 
ance at  the  start  that  the  die  would  be  O.  K.  at  the  points 
where  it  could  be  measured,  and  a  lot  of  time  was  saved  on 
the  job. 

The  cut  y  in  c  was  easily  machined,  and  the  cutter  /  was 
made  to  machine  z  in  b,  the  spindle  being  stopped  and  the 
machine  used  as  a  slotter,  which  did  the  job  much  better  than 
it  could  be  done  with  chisel  and  file,  and  in  a  fraction  of  the 
time. 

The  dies  warped  very  little  in  tempering,  and  samples  were 
secured  which  were  quite  satisfactory,  though  I  doubt  if  the 
methods  used  to  make  them  would  prove  profitable  commer- 
cially. 

Micrometrical  Forgings 

It  may  surprise  my  readers  to  learn  that  work  is  sometimes 
inspected  in  the  smith-shop  with  a  micrometer,  the  limit  al- 
lowed for  variation  being  only  .002  inch,  which  is  ordinarily 
considered  fairly  close  for  machine-work.  This  is  a  matter 
of  common  practise  in  some  places,  however,  and  is  not  con- 
sidered anything  out  of  the  ordinary. 

In  the  sketch,  Fig.  27,  a  is  a  fair  sample  of  a  piece  of  work 
of  this  class.  It  is  a  punch  used  by  boiler-makers  for  riveting 
holes  in  sheets.  The  only  finish  required  on  these  punches 
when  they  come  from  the  hammer  is  on  the  ends,  the  body 
being  simply  polished.  They  are  forged  in  the  ordinary 
cushion  hammer,  and  to  make  a  pair  of  dies  for  the  job  it  is 
necessary  to  make  a  cutter  or  "cherry,"  sketch  by  and  a  back 
rest  and  follower  screw,  c.  The  shank  of  the  cutter  is  very 
light,  and  under  ordinary  circumstances  it  would  be  impos- 
sible to  sink  it  in  the  die,  but  with  the  use  of  a  back  rest  it  is 
supported  so  that  it  cannot  crawl  sideways,  and  the  follower 
screw  holds  it  up  to  the  work  and  prevents  springing  the 
shank.  In  this  way  the  shank  has  nothing  to  do  but  to  turn 
the  cutter;  it  is  not  subjected  to  any  side  or  bending  strain, 


32 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 


and  allows  the  use  of  a  very  delicate  shank  if  care  is  used  in 
feeding  the  cut.  In  tempering,  care  is  taken  to  get  a  good 
temper  the  whole  length  of  the  shank,  for  if  left  soft  it  is  very 
apt  to  twist  off.  As  tempering  is  very  apt  to  spring  it,  before 
it  is  used  it  is  placed  in  the  machine  after  drawing  the  temper 
and  peened  with  a  punch  until  it  runs  true. 

Inf  is  shown  one-half  of  a  pair  of  dies,  which,  of  course,  in 


FIG.  27. — Micrometrical  forgings  and  their  making. 

this  class  of  work  are  always  duplicates,  and  which,  as  a  gen- 
eral thing,  have  two  impressions.  The  first  operation  is  to  run 
a  light  cut  with  a  routing  tool  across  the  face  at  the  point  where 
the  impression  is  to  be  made,  using  care  to  cut  the  same  depth 
in  each  die.  They  are  then  clamped  securely  together,  face  to 
face,  and  drilled  and  reamed,  making  the  half  hole  as  shown, 
the  light  cuts  previously  taken  serving  to  guide  the  drill 
straight  and  insuring  an  equal  depth  in  each  half.  One-half 
of  the  die  is  now  clamped  securely  to  the  slide  of  a  die-sink- 
ing machine  and  the  back  rest  c  is  placed  as  shown,  the  corner 


DROP-FORGE   WORK.  33 

x  being  placed  flush  with  the  side  of  the  half  hole.  An  ordi- 
nary C-clamp  is  generally  used  to  fasten  the  back  rest. 

The  ' 'cherry "  is  now  placed  in  proper  position  in  the 
machine,  and  it  simply  requires  careful  manipulation  of  the 
hand  wheel  of  the  machine  and  the  follower  screw  to  sink  to 
half  its  diameter  in  the  die.  The  shank  of  the -cutter  serves 
as  a  stop,  and  the  half  hole  prevents  cutting  too  deep. 

As  this  is  a  roughing  operation,  the  cutter  is  not  forced 
entirely  down  at  this  time.  This  operation  must  of  course  be 
performed  four  times  to  make  a  pair  of  dies  with  two  impres- 
sions. All  of  the  impressions  being  roughed  out,  the  dies  are 
placed  loosely  on  the  platen  of  the  machine  and  brought 
together  on  the  "cherry,"  and  an  ordinary  pattern-maker's 
clamp  is  used  to  force  them  together.  At  this  time,  if  the 
cutter  is  very  delicate,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  turn  the  machine 
by  hand,  as  it  is  apt  to  catch  on  the  corners,  and  it  is  an  easy 
matter  to  lose  the  cutter  at  this  stage  of  the  work.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  open  the  dies  several  times  in  this  operation  to  free  the 
cutter  from  the  chips,  as  there  is  nQ  place  for  them  to  work- 
out. Thick,  soft  card-board  is  often  used  between  the  dies 
to  prevent  closing  up  too  fast  under  the  pressure  of  the  clamp. 

We  now  have  a  die  as  shown  in  g,  the  cuts  y  and  z  being 
made  for  stock  clearance.  The  cuts  z  should  be  carried  as 
close  to  the  impression  as  the  strength  of  the  dies  will  permit, 
as  the  stock  which  is  drawn  down  at  this  point  must  run  out 
into  a  sprue,  and  thickness  here  means  waste  of  material. 
The  corners  of  the  sides  of  the  impressions  are  now  well 
rounded  off  with  chisel  and  file,  as  shown  by  dotted  lines  in  g, 
the  ends  of  the  impression  being  left  square. 

This  done,  the  dies  are  ready  to  temper,  and  if  badly 
warped  in  tempering  they  are  frequently  ground  on  a  surface 
grinder,  though  it  is  not  necessary  to  true  up  the  entire  sur- 
face. The  dies  are  now  clamped  together  and  a  lead  cast  is 
taken  of  the  impression.  If  it  measures  too  large,  of  course  a 
little  more  may  be  ground  off  the  faces,  but  if  too  small,  a  lead 
lap  must  be  made  and  the  impression  ground  out.  We  are 
now  ready  to  place  the  dies  in  the  hammer  and  begin  forging. 


34 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 


The  hammer-man  knows  by  experience  how  far  to  place 
his  red  hot  bar  of  tool-steel  in  the  die  to  give  stock  enough  to 
fill  it.  Of  course  if  he  takes  too  much,  the  surplus  will  force 
out  through  the  hole  in  the  end.  To  get  a  forging  that  ex- 
actly corresponds  to  the  dies,  it  is  necessary  to  hold  the  bar 
in  place  until  the  dies  come  together  fair,  it  is  of  course  being 
turned  all  the  time  by  the  hammer-man.  It  is  impossible  to 
get  one  of  these  forgings  too  small,  but  if  the  work  is  done 
by  the  piece  it  is  sometimes  taken  from  the  hammer  before  it 
is  down  to  size,  and  we  have  frequently  seen  a  hammer-man 
called  to  account  because  his  work  was  over  the  .002  limit 
which  he  was  allowed.  This  gives  an  illustration  of  a  case 
where  an  inspector  uses  a  micrometer  in  the  blacksmith-shop 
to  good  advantage. 

Drop-Forging  a  Ratchet  Drill  Handle 

Fig.  28  of  the  accompanying  drawing  is  a  shell  and  handle 
for  a  ratchet  drill,  and  Fig.  29  shows  the  piece  of  stock  from 

which  it  was  made.  The  width 
of  the  bar  of  stock  to  be  used 
was  determined  by  the  length 
of  the  shell,  and  the  thickness 
was  a  trifle  more  than  twice 
the  thickness  of  one  side.  The 
length  was  determined  by  ex- 
perimenting until  the  proper 


C 


FIG.  28. — Drop-forged  shell  and 

handle  for  ratchet  drill. 

length  was  found. 

Fig.  30  shows  the  first  operation,  which  was  done  on  a 
cushion  hammer  with  a  pair  of  dies 
shown  in  Fig.  31.  The  operation 
required  considerable  skill  in  the 
operator,  but  made  a  nice  job  if  the 
piece  was  properly  handled.  The 
stock  for  an  entire  order  was  cut  to 


FIG.  29.— Stock  for  for- 
ging Fig.  28. 


length  and  each  piece  put  through  the  first  operation.  The 
second  operation,  shown  by  Fig.  32,  requires  another  hand- 
ling. 


DROP- FORGE   WORK 


35 


FIG.  30. — First 
operation  on 
Fig.  28. 


The  dies  for  this  operation  are  shown  in  Fig.  33.  They 
were  of  cast  iron  and  contained  two  splitting  chisels  and  an 
expanding  mandrel,  as  shown.  X,  in  Fig.  33, 
is  a  steel  stripping-plate  to  draw  the  forging 
from  the  mandrel  after  the  forging  blow  is 
struck.  Two  blows  with  this  pair  of  dies  were 
necessary.  The  first  one  with  the  splitting 
chisels  formed  the  piece  as  shown  in  Fig.  32, 
and  the  second  one  expanded,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
34.  The  expanding  mandrel  was  slightly 
larger  than  the  forging  was  to  finish,  so  that 
the  mandrel  used  for  the  finishing  operation 
would  drop  freely  into  place. 

In  the  second  drop  was  a  pair  of  steel  fin- 
ishing dies  that  were  duplicates,  one  of  which 
is  shown  in  Fig.  35.  The  amount  of  stock 
was  calculated  so  nicely  that  very  little  fin  was  made  and  the 

piece  was  not  trimmed  hot 
at  all.  The  flash  is  shown 
surrounding  the  piece  of 
work. 

This  job  was  designed  by 
a  boss  blacksmith  who  has 
since  joined  the  majority. 

He  was  a  fine  old  gentleman  and  a  No.  1  mechanic,  and  the 
greatest  crime  he  knew  was  to  waste  stock 
in  performing  a  forging  operation. 

He  came  to  grief  one  time,  however, 
on  this  particular  job,  and  wasted  material 
for  an  entire  lot.  It  was  necessary  that  the 
iron  should  be  first-class  to  stand  the  strain 
of  splitting.  Knowing  this,  he  always  made 
a  few  samples  from  each  lot  of  iron  to  test 
it;  but  one  time,  for  some  unaccountable 
reason,  he  failed  to  take  this,  precaution,  and  of  course  this 
must  be  the  particular  time  when  the  stock  was  poor. 

He  cut  off  the  entire  lot  and  drew  down  the  handles,  and 


FIG.  31.— Dies  for  Fig.  30. 


FIG.  32. — Second 
operation  on 
Fig.  28. 


36 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 




• 

i          H 

i   \ 

_JTL 

when  he  started  the  second  operation  nearly  every  one  of  them 

split  at  the  end,  and  there  was  nothing  to  do  but  scrap  the 

entire  lot. 

This  confirms  the  generally  understood  fact  that,  however 

capable  and  competent  a  man  may  be,  he  at  some  time  or 

other  relaxes  his  vigilance  a 
little,  and  it  seems  as  though 
this  happened  in  most  cases 
when  he  should  have  been 
more  alert  than  ever. 

Vanadium  Forging  Dies 

The  severity  of  the  service 
on  riveters  and  forging  dies, 
boiler  punches  and  other  tools 
in  similar  cases,  often  makes 
the  upkeep  abnormally  expen- 
sive, even  when  the  best  car- 
bon steel  is  used.  It  is  in  such 
trying  situations  that  certain 
alloy  steels  have  shown  marked 
superiority — a  superiority  .so 

great  in  fact  as  to   be   in   some  instances  very  noteworthy. 

For  example,  in  a  ship-building  yard  on  certain  severe  work, 

pneumatic  hammer  riveting  dies,  made  of 

the  best  carbon  steel  obtainable  and  treated 

in  approved  manner,  lasted  only  about  ten 

hours  each.     The   vibrations   crystallized 

the  shanks  of  the  dies,   the  result   being 

breakage  at  the  junction  of  the  shank  and 

the  die  proper.     When  these  carbon  steel 

riveting  dies  were  replaced  by  vanadium 

steel  dies,  their  life  was  greatly  extended, 

fourteen   months    service    being   reported 

by  one  concern  using   this   alloy   for   its 

pneumatic  riveter  dies.     In  my  opinion  Vanadium  steel  is  the 

best  all  around  die  steel  and  cutting-tool  steel  to-day. 


FIG.  33.— Dies  for  Fig.  32. 


FIG.  34. — Expand- 
ing the  shell. 


DROP- FORGE   WORK 


37 


Die-Sinking  and  Shop  Practise  in  the  Making  of  Cutting  Tool- 
Holders  for  Machine  Tools 

In  the  manufacture  of  some  drop-forged  cutting-tool  hold- 
ers for  machine  tools,  and  similar  shaped  articles,  the  parts  are 
case-hardened  by  being  packed  in  large  boxes  with  raw  bone 
and  charcoal,  and  heated  in  furnaces  in  the  usual  way.  The 
method  of  handling  the  iron  boxes  is  not  however  as  common 
as  it  might  be.  These  boxes  are  made  with  grooves  or  cor- 
rugations on  each  side,  extending  the  entire  length  of  the 
box,  and  a  large  iron  fork,  the  prongs  of  which  just  fit  these 
grooves,  and  which  is  swung  from  one  traveling  tackle,  is  used 


FIG.  35. — The  steel  finishing-dies. 

to  put  the  boxes  into  the  furnace  and  to  remove  them  when 
they  are  sufficiently  heated.  When  the  boxes  are  removed 
the  contents  are  dumped  into  the  cooling  tank,  which  is  fitted 
with  a  screen  to  keep  the  parts  off  the  bottom  and  insure  more 
even  and  thorough  cooling,  all  of  which  is  necessary  to  insure 
a  uniform  condition.  The  screen  just  referred  to  can  be 
easily  removed  to  clean  the  burnt  bone  out  of  the  bottom  of 
the  tank. 

The  tool-holder  set  screws,  which  are  made  of  tool-steel, 
are  heated  in  special  furnaces  that  heats  only  the  points  and 
drops  them  into  the  hardening  bath  as  fast  as  the  operator  can 
feed  them  in.  The  burner  of  this  type  of  furnace  is  the  same 
as  that  used  on  a  bicycle  brazer,  and,  in  fact,  the  furnace  is 
principally  made  from  the  parts  of  an  old  brazing  stand. 

Naturally,  in  a  shop  depending  so  much  on  drop-forgings, 
the  die-making  department  is  one  of  the  most  important  in 


38  DROP- FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 

the  works  and  is  well  equipped.  This  department  is  in 
charge  of  a  man  of  long  experience  on  this  class  of  work.  One  of 
his  remarks  hits  the  drop-forging  die  problem  squarely  on  the 
head,  and  it  is  that  the  great  difficulty  in  drop-forge  work  is 
not  so  much  in  making  the  die,  but  in  making  the  metal  go 
into  it,  meaning,  of  course,  that  the  breaking  down,  roughing 
or  bending  operations  are  really  the  most  important  and  the 
most  difficult  to  plan  out  properly.  Almost  any  tool-maker 
can  sink  a  finishing  die  from  a  model,  but  it  takes  brains  and 


FIG.  36. — View  of  drop-forgings  as  they  appear  when  taken 
from  dies. 

experience  to  plan  and  work  out  the  other  parts  of  the  die  so 
that  it  will  work  satisfactorily  without  unnecessary  waste  of 
time  and  material.  In  planning  dies  or  die  parts  of  especially 
difficult  shapes,  plaster-of-Paris  models  are  often  used  in  order 
to  find  the  best  shape  or  position  for  the  part  to  lie  in;  this  is 
especially  important  in  so  planning  a  die  as  to  get  that  great 
desideratum  of  the  drop-forge  shop — the  finishing  in  one  heat. 
Fig.  36  shows  a  number  of  drop-forgings,  including  tool- 
holders,  wrenches,  drifts,  and  a  C-clamp,  with  the  flash  still  in 
place.  These  forgings  are  just  as  they  come  from  the  steam- 
hammer.  A  trimmed-off  flash  is  shown  on  top  of  the  large  C- 


DROP-FORGE    WORK  39 

clamp  in  the  middle  of  the  group.  Fig.  37  shows  a  lot  of 
lead  proofs  of  dies  for  making  various  sizes  of  drop-forgings, 
from  the  smallest  to  the  largest.  The  big  C-clamp  shown  is 
18  inches  long,  and  the  sizes  of  the  other  parts  can  be  judged 
from  it.  For  very  large  forgings,  such  as  the  C-clamp  men- 
tioned, cast-iron  dies  for  roughing  and  forming  are  used. 
The  piece  is  first  broken  down,  bent,  and  rough-formed  in 
these  dks,  and  then  reheated  and  refinished  in  the  tool-steel 
finishing  die.  Fig.  38  shows  a  set  of  wooden  patterns  for  a 


FIG.' 37. — Lead  proofs  of  various  parts  which  are  to  be 
drop-forged. 

pair  of  cast-iron  dies  weighing  1,600  pounds,  or  800  pounds 
apiece. 

Many  small  pieces  are  forged  in  "pony  dies,"  which  are 
made  of  a  shoe  of  tool-steel  two  or  three  inches  thick,  which 
is  keyed  into  a  heavy  cast-iron  or  cast-steel  block.  These 
pony  dies  are  very  economical,  as  one  set  of  shanks  can  be 
made  to  do  duty  for  a  large  number  of  shoes.  The  shoes  can 
all  be  located  by  dowel  pins  and  keyed  in  with  a  taper  key,  in 
the  same  way  that  the  shanks  are  keyed  into  the  steam-hammer 
anvil  and  head. 

For  working  out  difficult  dies  on  the  profiler,  the  univer- 


40  DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

sal  angle-plate  or  profiling-block,  familiar  to  users  of  universal 
milling  machines,  is  used.  These  blocks  are  made  so  that  the 
top  may  be  swung  around  in  a  complete  circle,  while  the  body 
can  be  tilted  two  ways,  about  45  degrees,  and  clamped  at  any 
point  on  the  base.  These  adjustments  give  almost  any  angle 
required  in  die-sinking,  that  cannot  be  obtained  in  the  regular 
profiler  vise. 

The  making  of  dies  for  the  "Armstrong"  boring  tool,  so 
that  the  metal  would  come  out  of  the  die,  was  quite  a  difficult 


FIG.  38. — Wooden  patterns  for  a  pair  of  heavy  cast-iron  dies. 

problem.  This  was  one  of  the  few  cases  where  getting  the 
metal  into  the  die  was  not  the  most  important  thing.  It  was 
easy  enough  to  make  a  die  that  would  forge  up  the  shape 
required,  but  owing  to  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  boring  tool 
the  metal  would  be  wedged  in  too  tight  to  be  easily  removed. 
This  problem  was  worked  out  by  using  plaster  of  Paris  in  the 
way  previously  referred  to,  and  the  die,  as  it  was  finally  suc- 
cessfully made,  is  shown  in  Fig.  39.  One  of  the  boring-tool 
holders  is  shown  lying  on  top  of  the  die.  The  truck  shown 
in  this  illustration  is  very  useful,  as  it  is  just  the  height  of  the 
work  benches  and  a  heavy  die  can  be  easily  pushed  from  one 
to  the  other. 


DROP-FORGE    WORK  41 

Drop-Forcings  on  the  Pacific  Coast 

The  Pacific  coast  offers  a  good  field  for  a  well-equipped 
die-sinking  and  drop-forging  establishment.  At  the  present 
time  (1910)  the  only  plant  of  its  kind  is  in  the  construction 
department  at  the  Mare  Island  navy  yard.  In  this  depart- 


FIG.  39. — Dies  in  which  a  boring-tool  shank  is  forged, 
and  a  convenient  form  of  shop-truck. 

ment  there  is  sufficient  work  to  keep  four  die-sinkers  and  one 
drop-forger  busy  constantly.  Their  work  has  greatly  reduced 
the  manufacturing  costs  of  forgings.  The  die  and  forge  shops 
were  put  in  operation  in  190$.  The  die-room  is  located  in 
the  machine-shop,  and  the  forge-room  in  an  annex  to  the 
blacksmith-shop. 

In  the  die-shop  there  are  two  die-sinking  machines,  two- 
lathes,  two  shapers,  a  drill-press,  a  die-slotting  machine,  a 
surface  grinder,  and  the  usual  small  tools  and  work  benches. 


42  DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

In  the  drop-forge  room  there  are:  One  1200-pound  hammer, 
one  2400-pound  hammer,  two  trimming  presses,  one  forging 
furnace  and  one  furnace  for  tempering  dies. 

By  standardizing  ship-fittings  and  manufacturing  them  in 
quantities  for  stock  to  be  used  as  needed,  the  cost  of  this  class 
of  work  has  been  greatly  reduced.  Before  the  establishment 
of  the  drop-forge  plant  all  such  fittings  were  made  as  needed, 


FIG.  40. — Drop-forged  ship-fittings. 

a  few  at  a  time,  by  hand  in  the  blacksmith-shop.  The  cost 
was  necessarily  high;  especially  so  as  wages  on  the  Pacific 
coast  were  high.  By  standardizing  such  fittings  and  manu- 
facturing in  quantities  not  only  is  the  cost  materially  reduced, 
but  also  the  delay  of  waiting  is  eliminated.  In  the  case  of 
urgent  repairs  to  ships,  delay  in  any  part  of  the  work  is  of 
great  importance.  The  illustrations  in  Figs.  40  and  41  show 
the  general  class  of  fittings  that  are  drop-forged. 

High  class  die-steel  is  not  used,  as  it  is  found  that  for  the 
kind  of  fittings  manufactured  the  lower-priced  material  an- 
swers equally  well.  There  is  not  only  much  less  cost  of 


DROP-FORGE    WORK  43 

material,  but  afso  of  labor,  owing  to  greater  ease  of  working 
the  softer  material.  The  die  material  is  purchased  in  open- 
hearth  billets,  10  feet  long,  of  the  proper  sizes,  and  is  cut  to 
required  lengths  for  dies.  For  dies  that  will  receive  hard 
wear,  steel  of  0. 60  per  cent,  carbon  is  used.  For  the  general 
run  of  dies,  steel  0'.40  per  cent,  carbon  is  used.  These  classes 
of  material  cost,  delivered  at  the  Mare  Island  yard,  about  3 
cents  per  pound.  This  is  less  than  half  the  cost  of  high-grade 
die-block  steel.  It  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  use  cyanide  in 
tempering  these  dies.  The  character  of  the  dies  used  is  shown 
in  the  illustrations,  Fig.  41. 

Dies  for  very  accurate  work  are  made  from  high-grade  steel, 


FIG.  41. — Specimen  drop-forge  dies  for  ship-fittings. 

for  the  reason  that  this  material  stands  up  better  under  the 
hammer  than  does  the  open-hearth  steel  of  0.40  to  0.60  per 
cent,  carbon  content.  For  ordinary  fittings,  as  shown  in  the 
illustrations  Fig.  40,  slight'  sinking  of  the  impression  makes 
practically  no  difference;  the  fittings  are  of  such  a  type  that 
absolutely  accurate  dimensions — within  a  few  thousandths  of 
an  inch — are  not  required. 

Careful  observations  were  made  of  the  dies  after  a  thou- 
sand or  more  forgings  had  been  made,  and  it  was  found  that 
some  of  the  impressions  had  sunk  a  maximum  of  0.004  of  an 
inch,  but  the  majority  showed  no  depression. 

Machining  a  Deep  Forming  Die 

The  piece  to  be  produced  is  shown  in  two  views  in  Fig. 
42.  The  only  material  fit  for  it  was  a  good  steel -casting  or  a 
drop-forging,  and  the  steel-casting  people  said,  "Not  less  than 


44 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


FIG.  42. — Forging  to  be  made. 


ninety  days,  or  four  months  after  we  receive  the  patterns," 

and  the  drop-forge  people  said,  "A  set  of  drop-dies  for  that 

will  cost  $$,  and  we  are  now  four  weeks  behind  in  our  die 

department. ' ' 

Almost  if  not  quite  by  accident  a  lot  of  drop-forgings  like 

Fig.  43  were  located;  these  were  circular  if  looked  at  the  other 

way.  One  of  these  forgings  was 
bent  or  flattened  to  about  the  re- 
quired shape  by  the  blacksmith 
and  compared  with  what  was 
wanted,  and  as  it  nearly  filled  the 
bill  it  was  decided  to  make  a  die 
and  form  them  to  shape,  rather 
than  wait  for  correct  drop-for- 
gings. or  steel-castings;  and  then 

it  was  up  to  the  shop  to  produce  the  goods. 

At  first  it  looked  as  though  it  would  be  a  case  of  digging 

a  cavity  out  of  the  solid  steel,  but  the  die-maker  rebelled,  as 

there  was  not  much  machine  shaping  of 

the  die  that  could  be  done  when  made  in 

the  solid.     Neither  did  he  wish  to  make 

a  " force"  and  heat  up  the  die,  put  the 

two  under  the  drop-hammer  and  hub  the 

cavity  to  the  proper  shape.     One  reason 

being  that  their  drop  weighed  only  190 

pounds   with    a   two-foot  drop;    besides 

that,  it  would  involve  quite  an  expense  to 

hold  and  apply  the  " force."     It  finally 

occurred  to  the  die-man  that  by  taking 

two  pieces  and  putting  the  two  top  faces 

of  them  together,  boring  a  cavity  in  the 

face  of  the  two  pieces  to  a  depth  equal  to  one-half  of  the  width 

of  the  required  opening,  then  placing  the  two  pieces  face  to 

face  the  other  way,  he  would  have  a  cavity  of  practically  the 

required  shape. 

Before  doing  the  act  in  steel,  he  took  a  piece  of  pine  in 

the  wood  lathe  and  turned  it  out  to  a  nominal  diameter,  depth, 


FIG.  43. — Forging 
commenced  with. 


DROP-FORGE   WORK 


45 


and  shape,  sawed  the  piece  in  two  along  line  A  B,  Fig.  44, 
placed  the  two  faces  C  and  D  together,  and  so  had  an  ocular 
demonstration  that  his  mental  picture  was  correct. 

He  then  got  out  the  steel  for  the  die  and  plunger,  also  a 
pattern  for  the  holder,  and  had  a  casting  made.     After  the  die 


FIG.  44. — Method  of  die-making. 

was  bored  out  it  almost  looked  like  Fig.  44.  The  steel 
was  next  sawed  in  half  at  A  B,  Fig.  44,  and  in  Fig.  45  as 
in  the  section,  one-half  only  being  shown.  The  two  halves 
were  next  placed  in  the  die-holder,  centered  up  on  the  face- 


FIG.  45. — Cross-section  of  Fig.  44. 

plate  of  the  lathe,  and  the  hole  through  the  bottom  was  bored. 
This  hole  was  the  same  shape  and  size  as  the  outside  of  the 
forging. 

The  top  face  of  the  die  was  also  concaved,  as  shown  at  a, 
Fig.  46,  so  that  the  forging  would  have  a  good  seat,  with  the 
forging  resting  in  the  die  and  the  upper  former  ready  to  do 


46 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 


the  forming.  Fig.  46  is  a  cross-section 
on  center  line  C  D,  Fig.  47.  Fig.  49 
is  a  corresponding  section  of  the  top 
former.  The  forging  came  solid,  like 
Fig.  43,  and  was  drilled  as  in  Fig.  42 
before  being  formed.  The  die-holder 
is  strengthened  by  the  two  large  bolts 
shown  at  Fig.  47.  A  positive  knock- 
out, not  shown,  was  used  to  clear  the 
die. 

As  will  be  seen,  the  machine  work 
FIG.  46. — Die  showing    on  tne  die  was  lathe  and  shaper  work, 


concaved  face. 


and  that  of  the  easiest  kind. 


Dies  for  Finishing  Bossed  Levers.     Sectional  Dies. 

Dies  of  sectional  form  would   include  a  boss  only,  on  a 
lever,  Figs.  50  and   51;  the  lever  ends  standing  out  beyond 


FIG.  47. — Plan  of  die-face. 

the  dies;  or  a  die  would  be  used  to  punch  a  hole,  and  correct 
a  boss  at  the  same  time,  Fig.  52.     Lever  ends,  either  forked 


DROP- FORGE   WORK 


47 


FIG.  48. — Section  of  complete  die. 


or  solid,  are  suitable  ob- 
jects for  finishing  in  this 

way.     So  are  the  ends  of 

connecting-rods,   Fig.   53, 

the  eyes  of  tie-rods,  and 

the    bridles    or  loops    of 

slide-valves.     In   the    old 

practise,  as  to  a  large  extent 

now,  these  were  made  of 

wrought  iron,  bent  and  welded.     These  operations  were  done 

at  the  anvil,  and  the  correction  and 
finish  done  at  another  heat  in  dies. 
These  dies  were  and  are  made  of  cast 
iron  from  a  pattern.  Later,  cast  steel 
has  often  been  used  with  a  view  either 
to  increase  the  strength  or  to  lessen 
the  weight  of  the  dies. 

Even  on  the  anvil,  in  little  shops 
where  there  was  not  as  yet  a  steam- 
hammer,  the  sledge  was  utilized  in 

finishing  the  heads  of  bolts  in  dies.     And  on  the  anvil  little 

devices  were  rigged  up  for  finishing  bosses    and   punching 


FIG.  49. — Section  of 
upper  former. 


FIGS.  50  and  51. — Sectional  dies  for  bossed  levers 


48 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


FIG.  52. — Correcting  die. 


holes,  a  type  of  which  is  the  spring 
swedge,  Fig.  54,  the  jaws  of  which 
were  fashioned  independently  of 
aid  from  the  machine-shop,  by  a 
process  of  typing  or  hubbing  from 
a  dummy  or  duplicate  forging. 
Very  many  simple  forms  can  be 
made,  and  are  made  still  in  this 
way,  as  a  legitimate  and  suitable 
method.  Light  swedges  are  used 
on  the  anvil,  just  as  the  heavier 
ones  are  operated  under  the  steam 
or  drop  hammer. 

The  sectional  dies  are  used 
very  extensively  now  in  the  black- 
smith-shop for  the  purpose  of  final 


FIG.  53. — Finishing  connecting-rod  ends. 


FIG.  54. — Spring  wedge  for  forging. 


DROP- FORGE   WORK 


49 


correction  and  finishing  only.     But  along  with  the  use  of 
these,  there  has  grown  the  practise  of  drop-forging  only,  either 


FIG.  55. — Example  of  forging-die,  forming  center 
holes  in  the  bosses  of  the  work. 

as  a  sub-department  of  the  shop  or  carried  on  in  a  distant 
shop.  Generally,  however,  the  merely  finishing  dies  are  used 
for  the  heavier  forgings,  and  the 
regular  dies  for  the  smaller  class  of 
work,  as  shown  in  Figs.  S5  to  59. 
To  make  the  larger  forgings  en- 
tirely by  forging  operations  would 
often  require  more  heavier  ham- 
mers and  other  appliances  than 
most  shops  are  equipped  with,  and 
the  numbers  wanted  of  the  large 
forgings  might  not  be  sufficient  to 
render  heavier  installation  profit- 
able. But  a  heavy  forging  may  be 
finished  in  dies  when  it  would  not 


FIG.  56. — Dies  for_a  lever 
with  hubs  at  both  ends. 


50 


DROP- FORGING,    DIE- SIN  KING,    ETC. 


FIG.  57. — Dies  for  forging 
an  eye-bolt. 


FIG.  58. — Dies  for  finishing 
the  eye-bolt. 


be    practicable   to   produce    it  entirely   from    a  rude   lump. 
Among  work  of  this  kind  may  be  instanced  large  tie-rod  eyes, 

large  bossed  levers,  Fig.  50, 
rings,  pillars,  and  such  like. 
Some  of  these  are  too  long  to  be 
embraced  in  a  single  die.  A 
long  two  or  three  bossed  lever, 
for  instance,  is  then  finished  only 
on  its  bosses,  and  for  an  inch  or 
two  away  from  them.  A  pillar 

for  hand-railing  would  have  its  bossed  portions  finished  sep- 
arately, and  the  body  corrected  by 
swaging  at  the  anvil,  or  in  other 


dies. 


Materials  Used  for  Dies 

The  number  of  similar  cast- 
ings required  is  often  insufficient 
to  justify  a  large  outlay  for  cut- 
steel  dies.  But  dies  made  in  cast  iron  are  not  costly,  and 
therefore  they  are  frequently  made  when  only  half  a  dozen  or  a 
dozen  of  similar  articles  are  required. 
They  may,  of  course,  be  kept  for  fu- 
ture use,  and  should  be,  when  a  job  is 
likely  to  be  repeated;  but,  apart  from 
that,  a  very  small  number  of  forgings 
will  pay  the  cost  of  cast  dies. 

The  growth  of  the  drop-forging 
and  stamping  art  has  been  gradual  and 
natural.  The  mere  fact  of  having  cast 
dies  lying  by  from  previous  jobs  has 
been  the  cause  of  their  utilization  for 
pieces  of  work  which  might  not  other- 
wise have  been  thought  to  justify  the  ex- 
pense of  new  dies.  But  being  in  stock, 

slight  and  unimportant  changes  in  some  dimensions  in  new 
jobs  would  often  render  the  dies  available.    In  this  way  the  be- 


FIG.  59. — Dies  pro- 
vided with  space  for 
receiving  the  fin. 


DROP-FORGE   WORK 


51 


FIG.  60. — Dies  with 
space  for  receiv- 
ing the  fin. 


ginnings  of  standardization  arose.  For 
as  the  dies  began  to  accumulate,  one 
pair  or  set  was  made  to  do  duty  for 
work  for  which  it  was  not  originally  in- 
tended. Thus,  the  difference  of  half  a 
ton  or  a  ton  of  crane  power  was  not 
allowed  to  involve  the  making  of  mi- 
nute differences  in  the  forged  work  for 
the  cranes,  but  one  standard  set  was 
used  for  both.  So  in  the  engine  and 
pump  work  the  same  standard  sets  came 
into  use  for  powers  and  sizes  of  mech- 
anisms that  were  not  dissimilar,  and 

when  the  difference  of  #  inch,  or  so,  in  dimen- 
sions could  make  no  possible  difference  in  the 
proper  operation  or  strength  of  the  forged  parts 
or  details. 

Principles  of  Drop-Forging  and  Stamping 
Large  Parts 

Comparatively  few  articles  can  be  produced 
in  one  pair  of  dies,  and  those  are  chiefly  circular 
forms,  the  diameters  of  which  at  different  sections 
f  ^  do  not  vary  greatly.  If  they  do  vary,  some  pre- 
liminary operation  or  breaking  down  is  necessary. 
And  if  a  portion  of  the  article 
takes  the  form  of  an  eye,  or  a 
boss,  three  or  four  successive 
operations  may  be  necessary  to 
produce  the  forging,  as  in  the 

eye-bolt  produced  in  Figs.  57  and  58.    The 

die-maker  has  then  to  settle  how  the  work 

shall  be  done,  whether  in  one  or  more  pairs 

of  dies,  and  whether  under  one  hammer  or 

two.     As  a  rule,  to  which  there  are  excep- 
tions,  it  is  desirable    to   do  all  work  at  a 

single  heat.     Then,  if  several  operations  are 


FIG.  61.- 
Forging 
made 
in  dies 
from  a 
bar. 


FIG.  62.— Die 
for  forming 
the  end  of  a 
ball  crank. 


52 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


required  they  must  be  done  either  in  one  set  of  dies,  or  in 
separate  dies.  For  small  forgings  it  is  easy  to  get  three  or 
four  recesses  in  one  pair  of  dies,  for  roughing  down,  for  for- 
mation, and  for  cutting  off  or  nicking  for  breaking  off.  In 
larger  pieces  it  is  necessary  to  have  two  hammers  adjacent,  so 
that  the  stamper  can  use  them  both  without  walking  away  from 
either.  But  a  few  hammers  are  made  double  headed,  with  two 


FIG.  63. — Stripping-die  for  removing  fin  and  its  work. 


anvils,  and  tubs  to  facilitate  such  work.  When  two  heats  are 
necessary,  then  it  may  be  convenient  to  perform  the  earlier 
operations  on  a  large  number  of  similar  pieces,  and  then  change 
the  dies  for  the  subsequent  operation.  This,  perhaps,  is  more 
often  done  in  the  regular  machine-shops  than  in  the  drop- 
forging  shops,  in  which  the  work  is  divided  between  two  ad- 
jacent hammers. 

Though  the  smith  working  at  the  anvil  endeavors  to  gage 
by  a  very  rough  metal  estimation  the  amount  of  material  which 
is  required  for  a  forging,  in  order  to  lessen  the  labor,  the 


DROP-FORGE   WORK 


S3 


drop-hammer  man  may  be  comparatively  indifferent  to  that 
consideration.  He  will  not,  of  course,  have  much  excess  of 
metal  if  it  can  be  avoided,  yet  he  is  much  in  the  same  position 
as  the  anvil  smith  who  has  a  steam  or  drop  hammer  available 
adjacent  to  his  anvil.  The  power-hammer  is  often  resorted  to 
for  roughing  down  an  odd  lump  quickly,  in  place  of  taking  a 
smaller  section,  which  would  require  the  alternative  of  upset- 
ting, or  of  welding.  The  shapeless  lump  is  simply  roughed 
down  rapidly  in  far  less  time  than  would  be  occupied  in  fuller- 
ing on  the  anvil,  or  in  performing  the  alternative  operations 
of  upsetting  or  welding.  In  this  way,  too,  very  many  odds 
and  ends,  cropped  from  iron  and  steel  bars,  are  utilized, 
which  would  otherwise  go  to  swell  the  scrap-heap. 


FIG.  64.  FIG.  65  FIG.  66. 

Showing  how  fin  on  round  work  is  forged  into  bar  by  rotating  it. 

The  case  of  hot  stamping  and  drop-forging  is  analogous. 
Though  forgings  having  considerable  differences  in  cross-sec- 
tional areas,  are,  as  a  general  rule,  broken  down  in  one  or 
more  operations,  preliminary  to  finishing,  yet  a  great  deal  of 
work  is  done  without  this  step-by-step  process.  A  cubical 
lump  is  taken  and  put  into  the  dies  and  reduced.  A  large 
amount  of  the  fin  being  squeezed  out  in  the  process,  this  is 
removed  in  an  adjacent  stripping-die,  Fig.  61,  and  the  for- 
ging put  back  and  finished  in  the  first,  or  in  another,  re- 
cess, followed  sometimes  by  a  final  trimming.  This  heavy 
reduction  is  only  possible  in  drop-dies,  first,  because  the 
lump  is  raised  to  a  high  heat  and  the  mechanical  work  done 
on  it  maintains  the  heat  until  the  reduction  is  completed. 
At  the  anvil  two  or  three  heats  would  often  be  required  to 
accomplish  the  same  amount  of  work  which  is  done  in  one 
heat  in  dies. 


54 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


Removal  of  Fin  Produced  in  Drop-Forging 

The  formation  of  fin,  it  will  be  noted,  is  peculiar  to  for- 
gings;  it  does  not  occur  in  anvil-work.  Sometimes  dies  are 
cut  like  Figs.  59  and  60  to  receive  fins.  In  Fig.  60  a  wide 
and  shallow  groove  is  cut  all  around  the  recess  to  receive  the 
fin.  In  Fig.  59  the  faces  are  sloped  away  with  the  same 
object.  Work  which  is  of  cylindrical  form  does  not  neces- 
sarily involve  the  formation  of  permanent  fin,  because  it  can 
be  rotated,  as  the  reduction  is  going  on,  and  such  excess  of 
metal  which  is  squeezed  out  laterally  is  removed  at  once  when 
a  partial  rotation  is  given  to  the  piece,  as  in  Figs.  64  and  65. 
In  Fig.  64  the  fin  is  shown  squeezed  out;  in  Fig.  65  it  is 


FIG.  67. — Dies  for  crane  hook. 

being  driven  into  the  forging  again.  Such  being  the  case, 
Fig.  66  is  the  shape  given  to  the  circular  dies  in  cases  where 
the  circular  form  is  not  hampered  by  the  proximity  of  shapes 
which  would  interfere  with  rotation.  When  the  work  can  be 
rotated,  the  result  is  a  fine  smooth,  polished  surface,  which  in 
many  classes  of  work  renders  any  subsequent  machining  un- 
necessary, or,  if  finish  is  essential,  a  little  grinding  may  suffice. 
In  some  forgings  a  portion  only,  a  stem  or  shank,  can  be 
so  treated,  the  remainder  consisting  of  an  eye,  or  a  flattened 
portion,  or  a  square  shape. 

Difference  Between  Treatment  of  Steel  and  Wrought  Iron 

In  the  blacksmith-shop,  wrought  iron  is  still  used  as  ex- 
tensively as  steel  for  small  forgings.  But  many  forms  when 
made  of  wrought  iron  must  not  be  forged  from  a  solid  lump, 


DROP-FORGE    WORK 


55 


because  of  the  loss  of  strength  which  occurs  across  the  grain. 
Large  thin  rings  and  curves  of  light  section  should  always  be 
bent.  But  if  these  are  made  of  steel,  no  such  reason  as  this 
exists,  because  steel  has  practically  no  difference  in  strength 
with  or  across  the  direction  of  rolling.  The  partial  substitu- 
tion of  steel  for  wrought  iron  has  therefore  been  favorable  to 


FIG.  68. — Bar  from  which  Fig.  69  is  made. 

the  development  of  drop-forging.     Many  jobs  are  now  forged 

from  a  solid  bar,  or  lump  of  steel,  which  were  formerly  made 

from  wrought  iron  by  bending  and  welding.     Hence,  while 

wrought  iron  is  still  extensively  used  for  anvil-made  forgings, 

steel  is  employed  much  more  for  drop-forgings.     The  crane 

hook,    Fig.    67,    when    made    of 

wrought  iron,  is  always  bent  from 

bar  before  being   finished   in   the 

dies.    Made  from  steel,  it  is  forged 

from  a  solid  lump.    For  the  forged 

end,  Fig.  68,  if  made  of  wrought 

iron,  a  bar  is  slit  and  opened  out, 

then  bent  over  a  form,  and  finished 

in  dies.     When  made  from  steel, 

it  may  be  forged  from  one  solid 

piece.     The  flange,   Fig.  64,  is  forged  in  steel  from  a  solid 

chunk,  handled  by  a  porter  bar  temporarily. 

Work  with  Holes  Flanged  Through  It 

The  old  method  of  punching  holes  is  that  shown  in  Fig. 
52,  in  which  the  punch  is  guided  by  a  plate  doweled  on  the 
body  of  the  die.  This  is  suitable  for  large  holes.  Frequently, 
for  small  holes,  the  punch  is  separate  and  is  driven  through  a 


FIG.  69. — Fork  lever. 


56 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


hole  in  the  upper  die,  as  in  Fig.  70;  in  Fig.  71,  a  hole  with- 
out its  punch  is  shown.  But  punches  are  also  often  included 
solidly  in  the  die,  as  in  Fig.  74,  half  in  top  and  half 


in 


FIG.  70. — Punching  small  hole  through  work  in  dies. 

bottom,  and  not  quite  meeting  at  the  center.  In  a  shallow 
boss  the  punch  may  be  in  one  half  of  the  die  only,  as  for  a 
forging  like  Fig.  72.  The. metal  becomes  squeezed  into  the 
boss  and  becomes  improved  through  consolidation.  Often, 

when  holes  are  left  to  be 
drilled,  the  centers  are 
stamped  by  small  conical  pro- 
jections in  the  dies  which 
serve  as  accurate  guides  to  the 


driller.  Sometimes  holes  are 
punched  only  through  a  por- 
tion of  the  metal,  Fig.  73, 
when  the  central  part  has  to 


FIG.  71. — Punching  holes 
through  bosses. 


be  bored  out  subsequently,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines. 


As 


Methods  of  Applying  Impact  or  Pressure  on  Dies 

Formerly  all  die  work  was  done  with  hammer  blows, 
the  demand  grew  for  an  extension  of 
the  system  to  heavier  forgings,  and 

to  articles  involving  the  bending  of 

,  ,    ,  ,  ,    ,  PIG.  72. — Holes  punched 

plates  and  sheets,  the  steam  and  drop  by  punches   integrai 

hammers  were  not  able  to  deal  well  with  die. 


DROP-FORGE   WORK 


57 


with  these.  The  demand  was  met  by  the  forging  machines, 
which  are  actuated  by  hydraulic  power  or  by  gears,  cranks, 
and  toggle  levers.  These  will  easily  deal  with  dies  and  articles 
several  feet  in  length,  many  of  which  are  too  intricate  to  be 


FIG.  73. — Semi-punching  holes. 

dealt  with  by  hammers,  even  if  their  diameters  did  not  set  a 
limit  to  such  treatment.  They  are  practicable  on  the  hydraulic 
presses,  because  two  rams  can  be  utilized,  one  acting  in  the 
vertical,  the  other  in  the  horizontal  position,  so  working  at 
right  angles  with  each  other.  This  is  utilized  for  bending, 


FIG.  74. — Construction  of  die  for  forging  a  hole  through  a  boss 

welding,  and  punching,  for  closing  up  joints,  for  dealing  with 
undercut  designs,  and  with  hollow  spaces  formed  by  bending 
and  welding  or  by  forging.  Typical  of  much  work  of  this 
class  is  the  die  and  punch  used  for  forging  the  rings  for  up- 
takes of  vertical  boilers,  Fig.  75,  from  a  plain  piece  of  steel 
plate.  Fig.  76  shows  the  die  for  forging  a  crank  by  pressure. 


58 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


A  large  amount  of  work  of  this  kind  is  done  in  the  railway-car 
shops. 

Stamped  forgings,  or  drop-forgings,  thus  diverge  into  two 
great  groups,  according  as  they  are  produced  by  hammer  or 
by  gradual  pressure.  Broadly,  the  first  group  includes  articles 
of  small  and  medium  dimensions,  the  latter  of  a  massive  char- 
acter, and  all  large  work  done  in  plates.  This  is  now  a  gen- 
erally accepted  division,  and  one  which  harmonizes  with  the 


FIG.  75. — Die  for  forging  and  flanging  man-hole  seatings. 


difference  in  hammer-blows  delivered  on  comparatively  small 
masses,  and  of  pressure  on  thicker  bodies.  When  mass  is  the 
condition  present,  slow  pressure  is  more  penetrating  than 
impact,  just  as  it  is  in  large  shafts  and  forgings.  Moreover, 
the  blows  delivered  from  a  very  heavy  hammer  are  destructive 
to  dies,  and  if  they  are  made  massive  enough  to  withstand 
these  blows,  then  they  are  too  heavy  for  convenient  handling. 
Massive  dies  are,  of  course,  required  to  resist  pressure,  but  that 
is  not  nearly  so  destructive  as  the  violent  jarring  action  of  the 
hammer. 


DROP- FORGE    WORK 


59 


Methods  Used  for  Making  Dies 

The  forces  and  dies  used  are  as  varied  in  their  details  and 
cost  as  the  forgings  themselves  are.  A  great  advantage  of  the 
forging  machine  dies  is,  that  like  machine  molding,  they  are 
as  readily  adaptable  to  the 
demands  for  a  very  few  identi- 
cal articles,  say  ten  or  a  dozen, 
as  to  hundreds  or  thousands. 
But  the  amount  of  work  put 
into  the  dies,  and  the  patterns 
and  materials  used  for  them 
have  to  bear  a  definite  relation 


LJ 


to  the   number  of   pieces  re- 
quired.    Hence,   we  have   at 
extremes,    dies    of    cast    iron 
made   cheaply,   and    those   of      FIG.  76. — Die  for  forging-crank. 
mild  steel  cut  out  with  care 

and  hardened.  Except  in  name  and  function,  the  examples 
at  each  extreme  have  little  in  common.  They  are  not  made 
in  the  same  way,  and  the  periods  of  their  service  are  much 
less  in  the  first  than  in  the  second  case. 

The  cast  dies  are  molded  from  suitable  patterns.     They 
may  have  to  be  cleaned  up  a  little  by  the  machinist,  but  no 
great  amount  of  skill  is  required  for  this.     As  they  are  liable 
to  fracture  unless  made  massive,  they  are  fre- 
quently encircled  with  bands  of  wrought  iron, 
shrunk  on,  as  in  Fig.   52.     They  are,  when 
small,  lifted  with  circular  tongs,  Fig.  78,  or  by 
the  hands,  but  larger  dies  have  handles  cast  in 
for  lifting  them,  Fig.  75.     Or,  alternatively, 
holes  are  cast  for  the  insertion  of  rods  for  the 
same   purpose.     Some   cast  dies  will   endure 
long  service,   others   fracture  soon.     Dies  of 
P       jj  cast  steel  are  stronger,  but  are  more  liable  to 

Cutters  for       inaccuracy,    because   frequently   they   are   not 
nicking  stock,      uniform  in  structure. 


60  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

Marking  and  Working  Out  Dies 

Dies  of  forged  steel  are  marked  out  on  their  faces,  and 
recessed  by  various  machine  tools,  and  by  hand  work.  All 
the  aids  offered  by  machine  and  tools  are  utilized,  as  boring, 
slotting,  milling,  and  shaping.  But  often  very  much  of  the 
work  is  left  for  the  chisel  and  file  to  complete.  There  are 
several  special  machines  designed  wholly  or  chiefly  for  the  use 
of  die-sinkers,  but  much  can  be  done  by  the  ordinary  tools  in 
the  shops.  Templets  are  used  to  gage  the  progress  of  the  work, 
including  those  of  sheet  metal  for  back  sections,  and  those 
which  represent  the  actual  forgings,  which  have  to  be  forged. 
These  are  made  of  lead,  or  tin,  or  a  first  sample  forging  is 
prepared.  Contact  is  insured  by  the  transference  of  red  lead 
from  the  templet  to  the  recesses  which  are  being  cut. 

Typing  or  Hubbing  Process 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  typing  or  hubbing  process. 
It  bears  an  essential  resemblance  to  the  operation  of  stamping 


FIG.  78. — Tongs  for  holding  dies. 

medals  and  coins  by  a  hard  blow;  only  the  operation  is  re- 
versed, the  die  itself  being  produced  by  stamping  it,  while 
white  hot,  from  a  cold  forging.  It  has  the  advantage  of  being 
cheaper  than  cutting  dies,  and  in  circular  outlines  is  accurate 
enough,  but  it  is  not  well  suited  for  intricate  shapes.  The 
spring  swedges  are  frequently  made  in  this  way.  In  obtaining 
circular  shapes  thus,  the  hub  or  type  is  rotated  between  each 
successive  blow,  so  correcting  any  inaccuracies  that  might 
form.  The  edges  are  of  necessity  produced  with  a  slight 
convexity,  Fig.  66.  But  this  is  an  advantage  in  producing 
circular  forgings  which  are  rotated  in  the  dies.  It  is  not 


DROP- FORGE   WORK  61 

necessary  to  have  complete  circles  in  such  a  case,  because  metal 
squeezed  out  laterally,  and  what  would  soon  form  a  fin,  be- 
comes obliterated  by  the  next  blow  when  the  rotation  into  a 
new  position  takes  place. 

In  one  of  the  illustrations,  Fig.  51,  dowels  are  shown, 
which  are  inserted  to  serve  as  guides  to  secure  the  alignment 
of  top  and  bottom  dies.  These  are  only  used  when  the  dies 
are  not  attached  in  any  way  to  the  anvil  below  and  the  ham- 
mer above,  as  is  often  the  practise  in  heavy  dies.  But  gener- 
ally the  dies  are  secured  by  dovetails  and  keys,  as  in  Fig.  53. 
In  some  cases  locating  screws  are  used  on  the  anvil  for  dies 
cut  at  the  corners,  like  Fig.  67,  and  the  dovetail  is  only  on 
the  top.  The  locating  screws  permit  of  making  slight  ad- 
justments. 

Forgings  are  often  included  wholly  in  their  dies,  especially 
in  hydraulic  forging-dies,  and  are  knocked  out  by  a  knock-out 
device,  or  are  pried  out,  or  pushed  out.  Often  a  porter  bar  is 
used,  generally  the  plain  length  of  the  bar  from  which  the 
forgings  are  being  made,  as  in  Figs.  55  and  57.  Then  the 
forging  is  easily  nicked  by  reducing  the  eye  at  the  neck,  as 
shown  in  Figs.  55  and  61;  or  a  pair  of  cutters  is  fitted  at  the 
end  of  the  dies,  as  in  Fig.  77. 

The  contents  of  this  chapter  outline  the  methods  of  drop- 
forging  in  use,  from  which  it  is  seen  that  the  practise  is  divi- 
sible into  three  great  groups:  that  done  under  hammers,  and 
that  in  presses,  and  a  further  subdivision  between  the  methods 
of  the  general  shop  and  the  drop-forgers  who  work  for  the 
trade. 


CHAPTER  II 

DIE-SINKING    AND     EMBOSSING      PRACTISE     METHODS,      PROCESSES, 
MACHINES,    AND    TOOLS 

Making  Forces  for  Embossed  Work 

THE  process  of  die-sinking  relates  to  the  engraving  or 
'sinking  of  the  female  or  lower  dies,  such  as  are  used  in  the 
press-working  of  metal?  for  jewelry,  silverware,  novelties,  and 
forgings,  and  for  producing  raised  lettering  and  ornamentation 
upon  name-plates,  tin  boxes,  pails,  and  similar  work.  The 
process  of  force-making  relates  to  the  making  of  the  male  or 
upper  die  to  be  used  in  connection  with  the  lower  die  in 
stamping  the  metal. 

With  the  exception  of  large  shops  where  much  embossed 
work  is  produced,  there  are  few  manufacturing  concerns  which 
employ  die-sinkers,  consequently  embossing  dies  are  usually 
sent  out  to  a  regular  die-sinker,  who  engraves  or  sinks  the 
lower  die  and  returns  it  after  hardening,  his  part  being  done. 

Next,  the  force  has  to  be  made,  and  this  cannot  be  done 
by  the  die-sinker  in  his  little  shop  for  two  good  reasons.  First, 
in  most  cases  he  has  no  drop-press  suitable  to  strike-up  the 
force,  and  secondly,  the  force  properly  made  should  be  struck 
up  in  the  press  in  which  the  dies  are  to  be  worked.  Conse- 
quently this  work  falls  short  of  the  die-sinker,  and  comes  to 
the  machinist  or  tool-maker  in  the  shop  using  the  die. 

Properly  Made  Forces 

Forces  may  properly  be  divided  into  two  classes,  those 
made  of  steel,  and  those  made  of  copper.  The  easiest  type  of 
steel  force  to  make  is  that  which  is  termed  a  flat  force,  which 
should  be  used  in  cases  where  a  flat  back  is  wanted  on  the 

62 


DIE-SINKING   AND    EMBOSSING    PRACTISE    METHODS  63 

embossed  piece,  or  where  extreme  lightness  is  not  desired. 
In  such  instances,  a  stronger  piece  is  produced,  but  thicker 
stock  must  be  used  to  make  the  work  than  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  use  where  the  regular  style  of  force  which  follows  the 
design  of  the  die  is  used. 

In  cases  where  the  design  is  fairly  regular  and  not  long 
and  narrow  in  outline,  the  flat  force  is  made  by  taking  a  piece 
of  round  tool-steel  of  about  the  same  size  of  the  largest  dimen- 
sions of  the  outline  of  the  design  and  about  one-half  longer. 
For  example — a  fla£  force  for  a  design  whose  longest  dimen- 
sion is  2  inches,  would  require  a  piece  of  2-inch  round  steel, 
3  inches  long.  This  piece  of  steel  should  be  held  in  the  chuck 
of  a  lathe  and  turned,  egg  shape  or  oval,  on  each  end,  and  one 
end  should  be  finished  so  that  it  is  free  from  tool  marks. 
Most  of  the  drop-presses  are  fitted  with  a  jack  or  "pick-up" 
die,  such  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  87,  by  means  of  which  all  except 
large  forces  are  held.  A  flat  block  of  hardened  steel  should 
be  lined  up  central  with  this  "pick-up"  and  firmly  held  there 
by  means  of  the  poppet  screws  on  the  press.  The  blank  for 
the  force  should  now  be  heated  to  a  bright  red  and  placed  upon 
its  finished  end  upon  the  lower  die  and  then  struck  as  hard 
as  possible  with  the  press;  this  will  cause  the  force  to  embed 
itself  in  the  "pick-up,"  and  it  should  now  be  rapidly  struck 
enough  times  to  spread  it  to  the  required  size,  then  pried  from 
the  "pick-up,"  hardened,  and  the  temper  drawn  to  a  light 
straw  color. 

Different  Shaped  Forces 

If  a  force  is  wanted  which  will  carry  the  metal  into  the  die 
and  thus  produce  a  thin  light  stamping,  the  same  methods 
should  be  followed,  except  that  in  place  of  the  block  of  hard- 
ened steel  held  on  the  bed  of  the  press  by  the  poppet  screws, 
the  lower  die  should  be  substituted,  lined  up  and  held  as 
before.  In  making  this  style  of  force,  care  should  be  used  to 
keep  all  scale  from  getting  on  the  face  of  the  die  and  spoiling 
the  force.  If  the  design  of  the  die  is  deep,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  use  two  or  more  heats,  in  which  case  the  force  should 


64  DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

be  removed  from  the  "pick-up* '  and  reheated,  then  fitted 
into  the  lower  die  as  rapidly  as  possible  and  at  once  struck. 
If  done  properly,  it  will  lift  with  the  pick-up  and  should 
now  be  struck  until  every  detail  of  the  die  appears  on  the 
force. 

When  the  shape  of  the  outline  is  long  and  narrow,  the 
steel  blank  should  be  of  the  diameter  of  the  greatest  width  of 
the  design,  and  about  1  inch  longer  than  its  length.  The 
whole  length  of  the  piece  should  be  finished  smooth,  as  this 
piece,  after  heating,  must  be  laid  sideways  on  the  die  when 
striking  it. 

The  reason  for  always  leaving  the  most  stock  in  the  center 
of  the  force  blank  is  that  the  center  of  the  design  is  always  the 
hardest  to  make  "come  up"  sharp,  consequently  we  leave  the 
stock  thickest  there  so  as  to  help  it  all  possible.  Also  a  piece 
of  this  shape  is  easily  "picked  up,"  which  would  be  almost 
impossible  with  a  flat  piece  of  steel. 

Steel  Forces  for  Flat  Work 

Steel  forces  for  flat  work,  such  as  nameplates,  tin-can  work, 
etc.,  require  very  careful  work,  and  while  they  can  be  made 
by  the  method  already  described,  it  is  not  the  very  best  way, 
for  the  reason  that  the  steel  being  struck  into  the  die  while 
hot  shrinks  upon  cooling,  and  results  in  a  force  which  will  not 
fit  the  die  as  it  should.  This  Shrinkage  is  noticeable  on  all 
hot-struck  forces,  but  matters  little  where  there  is  any  depth 
to  the  die.  One  method  of  overcoming  this  trouble  is  to 
strike  the  force  in  the  die,  after  it  has  been  brought  up 
enough,  every  few  minutes  until  the  force  has  entirely  cooled, 
but  where  the  impressions  in  the  die  are  so  very  shallow,  like 
the  letters  on  a  name-plate,  the  corresponding  letters  on  the 
force  are  very  apt  to  be  obliterated  during  this  process,  and  so 
make  the  force  useless. 

By  far  the  best  way  to  make  such  forces  is  to  start  with  a 
plain  piece  of  steel  whose  face  is  the  exact  shape  of  the  outline 
of  the  name-plate,  and  this  should  be  beveled  off  toward  the 
back  of  the  piece  about  10  degrees.  The  thickness  of  this 


DIE-SINKING   AND    EMBOSSING    PRACTISE    METHODS 


65 


FIG.  79. — Embossed  Police-shield 
before  and  after  trimming. 


piece  should  be  from  1  to  10  inches,  according  to  the  size  of 

the  name-plate. 

This  piece  should  now  be  given  a  thin  coat  of  solder  on 

its  face,  and  then  it  should  be  carefully  placed  face  down  upon 

the  die  it  is  to  fit,  taking  care  that  the  outline  of  the  force 

matches  up  with  the  design 

of  the  die.     After  placing 

both  die  and  force  under 

the  drop-hammer  it  should 

be  struck  one  solid  blow, 

and  only  one.     In  doing 

this  part  of  the  work  it  is 

not  necessary  to  fasten  the 

force  to    the  hammer    of 

the    press,    but    the    die 

should  be  fastened  to  the 

press  bed  in  the  ordinary 

way.   This  being  done,  the 

force  should  be  taken  from 

the  die,  and  it  will  be  observed  that  the  imprint  of  every  letter 

of  the  die  shows  clearly  upon  the  solder  coating  of  the  force, 

which  must  now  be  held  in  the  vise  while  the  solder  and  steel 

around  the  letters  should  be  removed  with  small  chisels  until 

only  the  letters  are  left  stand- 
ing. The  force  should  now 
be  fitted  into  the  die  and 
struck  again,  after  which  the 
solder  on  the  tops  of  the 
letters  may  be  filed  off,  leav- 
ing still  a  good  impression 
on  the  steel  force.  The 

T-,      OA      T,    ,  chipping  process  should  be 

fie   80.— Embossed  badge  before 

and  after  trimming.  repeated    and    then    struck 

again,  until  the  background 

has  been  sufficiently  taken  away.  The  back  of  the  force  may 
now  be  dovetailed  so  as  to  be  keyed  into  the  press,  as  the 
pick-up  cannot  be  used  with  this  method  of  force-making.  In 


66 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


some  shops,  forces  are  held  to  the  head  of  the  press  by  means 
of  screws,  but  this  is  not  good  practise,  as  the  constant  shock 
and  vibration  of  the  press  in  operation  tends  to  loosen  them 
or  snap  them  in  two. 

The  chipping  out  of  the  forces  can  be  greatly  helped  by 
using  punches  of  various  shapes;  especially  are  these  useful  in 

driving  down  stock  in  the 
centers  of  the  letters  and  other 
places  hard  to  chip  out. 


Copper  and  Brass  Forces 

Copper  forces  do  not  re- 
quire nearly  as  much  care  to 
make  as  steel  forces,  as  they 
are  always  struck  in  the  press. 
While  it  is  often  necessary  to 
strike  copper  forces  hot,  they 

can  many  times  be  made  cold,  which  way  is  to  be  preferred, 
as  the  copper  is  much  harder  when  struck  cold,  consequently 
the  force  lasts  longer  when  in  use.  The  stock  for  a  copper 
force  does  not  need  to  be  round  as  it  "comes  up"  when  struck 
very  easily.  Copper  forces  are  always  held  in  the  pick-up, 
and  have  the  advantage  that  they  may  be  struck  into  the  die 
at  any  time  while  in  use,  and 
thus  sharpen  up  the  details 
of  the  design  as  they  become 
worn. 

In  the  absence  of  copper, 
brass  is  sometimes  used  for 
small  forces,  but  it  cannot 


FIG.  81. — Embossed  number 
plates. 


be    struck   hot    like   copper,         FIG.  82.— Emblem  and  blank, 
and  it  splits  easily  if  struck 

too  hard,  and  for  these  reasons  is  undesirable,  though  it  can 
be  used  in  an  emergency. 

In  the  illustrations  of  embossed  work,  Figs.  79  to  86, 
some  have  been  trimmed  and  some  not.  Figs.  79  and  80 
illustrate  german  silver  stampings  for  badges;  Fig.  81  shows 


DIE-SINKING   AND    EMBOSSING    PRACTISE    METHODS 


67 


a  thin  copper  label  struck  up  with  a  copper  force;  Fig.  82 
is  a  copper  ornament  struck  with  a  flat  force,  as  will  be  seen 
in  the  reverse  side  illustration;  Figs.  83  and  84  show  examples 


FIG.  83. — Embossed  belt  buckle  in  sheet-metal. 

of  stamped  belt  buckles;  Fig.  85  is  a  name-plate  of  brass,  made 
with  a  force  which  was  made  by  the  chipping  process,  as 
described,  and  Fig.  86  shows  a  heavy  aluminum  label  made 
with  a  copper  force.  In  the  illustrations  two  cuts  of  each 
piece  are  shown,  face  and 
reverse  views.  Fig.  87 
shows  one  style  of  pick- 
up die. 


FIG.  84. — Embossed  buckle. 


Cutting  the  Impression    in 
Die-Sinking 

In  the  shop,  employers 
judge  of  men's  work  by  the 
amount  they  see,  and,  when 

all  there  is  in  sight  to  show  what  the  die-sinker  has  been 
doing  for  several  hours  is  a  dotted  line  on  a  steel  block,  the 
employer  is  apt  to  have  misgiving.  Let  him  remember  that 
"work  well  begun  is  half  done."  An  old  mover  of  houses 
once  said:  "When  I've  got  a  building  well  loaded  on  my 
rollers  I  allow  that  I've  got  the  biggest  part  of  the  job  done." 
When  the  profile  of  an  impression  is  marked  on  the  block  of 
steel  a  good  beginning  has  been  made.  The  lines  show 


68 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


what  stock  on  the  surface  is  to  be  removed;  they  do  not 
show  the  depth  to  which  they  are  to  be  cut  away,  nor  the 
shape  of  the  bottom.  These  are  sometimes  gaged,  as  the 
work  progresses  directly  from  the  model;  a  better  way  is  to 


FIG.  85. — Embossed  stamping. 

mark  off  a  side  view  on  the  side  of  the  die,  as  it  is  very 
convenient  to  have  it  there  in  setting  the  drills  to  the  right 
depth. 

To  illustrate  the  fundamental  principles,  these  dies  are 
supposed  to  be  sunk  with  very  simple  tools,  but  not  altogether 

with  the  simplest.     It  is  fairly  to 

be  supposed  that  any  place  that 
requires  dies  has  so  simple  a 
machine  as  a  drill-press,  at  least. 

The  simplest  tools  are  those 
which  a  Frenchman  proposed  to 
use  in  1861,  when  die-sinkers 
were  in  demand.  He  was  an  ex- 
pert steel-stamp  cutter  whose  ex- 
perience had  been  exclusively  on  hand-work.  In  applying 
for  work  at  sinking  dies  he  claimed,  as  a  special  inducement 
to  give  him  employment,  that  he  did  not  require  any  tools  ex- 
cept a  cold  chisel  and  hammer.  It  was  suggested  to  him 
that  this  accomplishment  cut  no  figure  when  drill-presses 


FIG.  86. — Embossed 
stamping. 


DIE-SINKING    AND    EMBOSSING    PRACTISE    METHODS  69 

were  abundantly  provided  and  could  displace  stock  more 
economically. 

"No!  no!"  he  exclaimed,  giving  his  arm  a  swing  as  if  to 
strike  the  blow  of  a  Hercules.  "I  am  strong.  I  cut  a  little 
place  deep  enough,  then  I  set  my  chisel  back  just  as  much  as 
I  can  cut,  and  I  cut  that  chip  to  the  bottom  of  the  hole;  then 
I  take  another  chip;  I  am  not  lazy;  then  I  take  another — all 
just  so  deep — by  and  by,  after  a  little  while,  I  have  the  stock 
all  cutout." 

The  Frenchman's  theory  was  correct,  perhaps,  although 
our  mechanics  would  probably  cut  channels  through  with  a 


FIG.  87. — Force-holder. 

cape  chisel,  and  get  rid  of  half  the  stock  by  breaking  between 
the  caping,  provided  they  had  to  "knock  a  hole  into  that  ere 
block  with  a  chisel."  He  made  a  first-class  die-sinker,  but  he 
got  bravely  over  his  partiality  for  manual  labor  after  experi- 
menting with  and  experiencing  the  benefits  of  machinery. 

Although  most  of  the  stock  is  to  be  drilled  out,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  do  some  chipping.  A  few  stout  bull  chisels  may 
be  required  for  heavy  cutting.  A  dozen  or  more  chisels 
should  be  provided  of  various  sizes  and  shapes.  After  becom- 
ing accustomed  to  them  it  will  be  found  that  it  is  very  handy 
to  use  finishing  chisels  made  of  about  -Mi-inch  octagon  steel,  7 
or  8  inches  long,  tapered  from  about  2^  to  /^-inch  for  the 
size  of  the  head,  and  from  about  an  inch  from  that  place  ta- 
pered down  to  within  half  an  inch  of  the  point  where  it  should 


70 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 


be  little  less  than  the  size  of  the  cut  to  which  it  widens  at  that 
point.  They  are  conveniently  kept  in  a  tin  can  on  the  bench, 
points  up.  Some  folks  are  so  inherently  mathematical  that 
the  rule  of  three  dominates  all  their  logic.  They  insist  that 
if  an  inch  chisel  should  be  8  inches  long,  then  a  quarter-inch 
chisel  should  be  one-quarter  as  long — 4  into  8  two  times — 
hence  a  quarter-inch  chisel  should  be  two  inches  long.  File 
cutters'  chisels  are  short,  but  in  die-sinking  more  free-hand 
work  is  advisable.  If  Fig.  90  is  not  a  very  good  representa- 
tion of  the  chisel  described,  do  not  lay  all  the  blame  upon  the 
engraver. 

"Breaking-through  chisels"  for  bursting  out  the  honey- 
comb left  by  the  drill  are  stronger.    They  may  be  made  of  ^6- 


V 


FIG.  88. 


FIG.  "89. 
Die  Sinkers'  chisels. 


FIG.  90. 


inch  octagon  steel  thinned  down  back  from  the  point  from  an 
inch  and  a  half  to  two  inches,  to  a  little  less  than  the  size  of 
the  drill  which  they  are  to  follow.  A  very  good  shape  is 
shown  in  Figs.  88  and  89.  The  use  of  these  chisels  in  plow- 
ing furrows  through  the  stalactic  remains  after  drilling  is 
apparent. 

Before  proceeding  any  farther  it  may  be  advisable  to  make 
trial  templets,  1,2,3,4,5,  shown  in  Fig.  91.  Templets  for 
trial  are  sometimes  preferred  made  without  the  overhanging 
ends  which  are  here  shown,  and  are  designed  to  rest  on  the 
surface  of  the  block,  to  indicate  the  proper  depth.  When  they 
are  made  without  these  ends  the  depth  is  indicated  by  a  mark 
drawn  across,  or  notches  filed  in  the  edges  of  the  templets. 


DIE-SINKING   AND    EMBOSSING    PRACTISE    METHODS 


71 


Adjustable  depth-gages  are  also  indispensable  in  die-sinking; 
they  are  made  in  a  variety  of  forms,  according  to  the  taste  or 
notion  of  the  workman. 

Riffles  and  Their  Use 

Some  die-sinkers  provide  themselves  with  peculiar  shaped 
pieces  to  fit  into  the  places  in  the  dies  which  they  want  to 
smooth  up.  On  those  they 
cut  teeth,  and  as  they  are 
provided  with  shanks  for 
handles  they  can  be  used 
for  smoothing,  like  files. 
These  tools  are  called 


FIG.  91. — Trial  templets. 


"riffles,"  and  to-day  may 
be  purchased  all  ready  finished  in  a  variety  of  shapes  and  sizes, 
both  smooth  and  coarse  cut.  Other  die-sinkers  do  this  class 
of  work  with  scrapers.  To  get  a  purchase  to  brace  against  in 
scraping,  they  use  a  rod  which  they  support  with  the  left 
hand.  They  thus  avoid  injufy  which  the  bracing  of  the 
scraper  might  inflict  upon  the  edges  of  the  die.  The  edges 

are   sometimes    protected   for   this 

purpose  by  interposition  of  a  strip 
of  copper  or  zinc. 

The  stock  which  is  to  be  re- 
moved from  the  impression  to  cor- 
respond with  the  depth  templet  (1) 
Fig.  91,  is  semi-circular.  It  could 

be  bored  out  either  on  a  drill-press  or  in  a  lathe.  In  this 
case  that  is  not  the  best  way.  It  is  better  to  drill  it  out,  as 
shown  by  Figs.  92  and  93.  We  therefore  lay  out  a  central  line 
lengthwise  through  this  part  of  the  die,  and  draw  two  series 
of  lines  across  it  in  an  angle  of  60  degrees,  which  intersect 
each  other  and  the  central  line  at  distances  which  are  a  little 
greater  than  the  size  of  drill  which  we  decide  to  use. 

The  points  of  the  intersection  are  then  punched,  for  they 
are  all  the  centers  of  the  holes  which  are  to  be  drilled.  The 
drill  is  set  as  near  as  may  be  to  the  proper  depth  marked  on 


Sonet/  combed 

FIGS.  92  and  93.— 
Drilling  die. 


72  DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

the  side  of  the  die,  and  a  stop  on  the  drill-press  is  adjusted  to 
gage  it.  The  lost  motion  should  be  taken  up  out  of  the  drill- 
spindle.  Ordinary  care  must  be  exercised  not  to  drill  too 
deep  and  to  keep  within  limits,  sideways,  as  any  excess  in  any 
direction  will  necessitate  planing  off  the  dies. 

Drilling  Out  the  Stock 

The  form  "of  the  impression  at  the  end  of  the  large  part, 
gaged  by  templet  (2)  suggests  that  if  the  die  was  strapped  on 
the  face-plate  of  a  lathe  in  the  proper  position,  the  impression 
might  easily  be  formed  with  a  turning  tool,  or  that  it  might 
be  readily  made  on  the  drill-press  with  a  boring  tool  like  a 
counterbore  or  end  milling  cutter;  and  the  half  round  shape  of 
the  other  and  smaller  end  of  the  impression  suggests  that  the 
same  means  might  be  adopted  to  sink  that  also,  and  there 
being  so  much  of  this  kind  of  work  to  do  on  the  dies,  it  would 
be  economical  to  make  a  lathe  job  of  it,  and  so  they  might  be 
sent  to  the  lathe.  The  proposition  is  very  tempting,  and 
under  favorable  circumstances' might  be  accepted,  but  really  it 
is  not  any  more  difficult  to  make  these  parts  of  the  die  by 
drilling  and  chipping  than  it  would  be  if  their  form  were  not 
so  well  adapted  to  be  made  by  boring  or  turning,  and  the 
trouble  of  making  arrangements  for  doing  it  in  the  lathe  or 
special  tools  for  boring  it  in  the  drill  press  might  not  be  com- 
pensated for  by  increased  facility  or  perfection.  We  will 
therefore  lay  it  out  and  drill  it  as  we  did  the  first  part.  We 
will  lay  out  and  drill  at  this  time  all  of  the  die  which  is  to  be 
sunk  to  a  uniform  depth.  Afterward  we  will  lay  out  a  row  of 
holes  at  the  proper  distance  from  the  edge  of  the  rounded  part 
of  the  die  which  is  to  be  sunk  to  templet  (3).  This  rounded 
part  starts  in  at  A  and  runs  to  the  dotted  line  shown  through 
the  templet,  and  setting  the  drill  to  the  depth  near  A  it  can  be 
kept  at  that  depth  at  an  equal  distance  from  the  profile  line 
around  to  the  dotted  line,  and  then  a  new  series  of  holes  of  a 
different  depth  from  these,  but  uniform  with  each  other,  can  be 
drilled  on  a  parallel  line  with  these,  and  so  on  until  this  section, 
which  has  a  bottom  of  unequal  depth,  has  been  duly  drilled. 


DIE-SINKING   AND    EMBOSSING    PRACflSE    METHODS  73 

-  Using  the  Breaking-Out  Chisel  % 

The  work  of  the  breaking  out  chisel  is  now  in  order,  and 
the  labor  of  five  minutes  at  this  stage  of  the  proceedings  makes 
a  better  show  than  at  any  other  time.  The  honeycomb  is 
quickly  knocked  out  and  a  ragged-looking  hole  appears. 
Giving  the  edges  a  skelp  all  around  reduces  the  profile  to 
smoothness  and  prepares  the  way  for  the  really  good  work  on 
the  die  to  commence.  This  consists  in  cutting  the  upper  part 
exactly  to  the  profile,  as  delineated  on  the  surface;  in  following 
down  from  the  surface  outline  at  the  exact  angle  which  has 
been  determined  upon  for  the  draft  in  getting  the  bottom  of 
the  proper  shape,  and  in  getting  the  corners,  where  the  sides 
meet  the  bottom,  into  true  and  regular  form.  These  things  are 
all  really  difficult  to  do  with  a  chisel,  while  with  a  cutting  tool 
— a  revolving  cutter — they  are  done  with  but  little  trouble,  as 
they  are  largely  governed  by  the  shape  of  the  tools  employed. 

If  the  chisel  is  not  properly  used  an  excessive  amount  of 
time  will  be  required  to  finish  up  with  the  scraper.  It  is 
astonishing  how  fast  a  mechanic  improves  in  close  chipping 
by  practise,  but  it  need  not  be,  when  we  reflect  that  a  good 
deal  of  ornamental  designs  and  engraving  is  done  by  foreign 
workmen,  mostly  with  tools  which  they  impel  with  light 
hammers. 

Good  sharp  chisels  can  only  be  kept  sharp  by  having  them 
made  of  the  best  material,  so  they  will  stand  to  be  left  hard 
enough  not  to  lose  their  edge  by  battening.  To  do  close 
chipping  requires  an  edge  that  is  keen,  and  that  will  remain 
so — one  that  will  not  slink  away  from  its  grip,  but  will  carry 
the  chip  clear  through. 

In  finishing  up  the  lower  corners,  some  die-sinkers  make 
use  of  sets,  which  are  shaped  so  that  one  side  of  the  working 
end  rests  on  the  flat  bottom  of  the  die,  and  the  other  rises  up 
at  the  proper  angle  to  give  the  right  inclination  to  the  side. 
These  tools  should  not  be  used  to  such  an  extent  as  to  cause 
unequal  tension  in  the  die  by  driving  stock  down  with  aught 
to  have  been  cut  away. 


74  DROP- FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

"Roughing  tools* '  are  useful  in  bottoming;  they  are  made 
on  a  matrix  which  is  simply  a  mass  of  square  points.  By  dri- 
ving the  hot  roughing  tool  down  on  this  the  end  is  formed,  as 
though  it  was  a  dozen  chisel  edges  crossed  with  another  dozen 
chisel  edges.  It  is  afterward  hardened.  By  driving  it  down 
and  moving  it  about  it  stamps  fine  checks,  and  these  are  easily 
rubbed  away  with  file  or  scraper,  leaving  a  smooth  surface. 

When  the  dies  are  nearly  completed,  ready  for  the  final 
finishing,  arrangements  are  made  by  which  a  lead  cast  be  taken 
when  the  dies  are  clamped  together,  as  they  are  to  go.  If  the 
edges  as  shown  by  the  lead  cast  do  not  correspond  they  must 
be  altered  in  the  dies  until  they  perfectly  match. 

The  Champney  Die-Sinking  Process 

Many  of  us  know  what  die-sinking  is  and  what  it  costs;  we 
are  all  familiar  with  the  clean,  light  shop,  with  its  planers  and 
shapers  and  drilling  machines  and  its  rows  of  die-sinking 
machines,  all  beautiful  tools;  and  its  row  of  clean,  bright, 
intelligent  workmen  sitting  in  a  north  light,  industriously  and 
with  concentrated  attention  slowly  sinking  the  shape  of  some 
piece  of  work  down  into  the  solid  metal  of  a  steel  block,  with 
their  queer  shaped  files  and  delicate  chisels;  most  of  us  have 
looked  at  a  finished  job  of  die-sinking — an  absolutely  perfect 
fit  for  the  irregular  surfaces  of  the  piece  which  it  is  to  make, 
and  have  secretly  wondered  at  the  skill  of  the  workman  who 
could  do  such  a  job.  Some  of  us  have  seen  a  marvelously 
constructed  pantagraph  tracing  its  thousands  of  cuts  in  a  coin- 
die,  guided  by  a  large  model  which  its  mechanism  reproduces 
in  reversed  miniature  in  the  block  of  steel  to  be  used  in  the 
coining  press,  and  we  have  also  admired  and  wondered  at  this 
beautifully  exact  piece  of  high  grade  mechanism,  and  of  course 
we  know  a  lot  about  die-sinking;  we  know  what  machines 
must  be  used,  what  class  of  workmen — really  artists  the  good 
die-sinkers  must  be — what  grades  of  steel,  and  above  all  what 
days  and  weeks  of  patient  labor  must  be  used  to  make  a  fin- 
ished die.  We  know  it  to-day,  just  as  we  knew  it  twenty  years 
ago;  die-sinking  by  the  old-established  methods  can  be  seen 


DIE-SINKING   AND    EMBOSSING    PRACTISE    METHODS  75 

in  almost  every  good  establishment  in  the  metal  manufactur- 
ing trade;  the  use  of  the  drop-hammer  and  the  power  press, 
mechanical  or  hydraulic,  in  metal  manufacturing,  the  old, 
slow,  skilful,  well-established  methods;  and  yet  George  F. 
Champney,  engineer,  found  out  thirty-five  years  ago  how  he 
could  make  any  die  for  any  purpose,  from  the  heaviest  forging 
die  to  be  used  under  the  most  ponderous  drop,  to  the  finest 
medallion  or  coining  die,  in  one  instant — in  the  very  briefest 
fraction  of  a  second,  with  the  simple,  almost  rude  tools  shown 
in  these  engravings;  and  not  only  found  out  how  to  sink  dies 
perfect  in  shape  and  surface,  but  far  superior  in  quality  and 
endurance  to  any  dies  made  by  any  other  method. 

History  and  Evolution  of  the  Process 

Fifteen  years  ago  a  gentleman,  knowing  that  another  was 
as  one  of  the  Athenians,  who  held  that  day  lost  in  which  they 
learn  no  new  thing  said:  " There  is  a  man  in  Bridgeport, 
Conn.,  who  has  a  hammer  with  a  50-feet  drop;  he  takes  a  cast- 
iron  force  any  shape  he  wants,  and  fastens  it  on  the  bottom 
of  this  50-feet  fall  hammer,  and  he  puts  a  block  of  red  hot 
steel  on  the  anvil  of  that  hammer  with  the  force  on  the  ham- 
mer, and  just  drops  the  hammer  with  the  force  on  the  bottom 
of  it  right  down  into  the  steel  at  one  spat,  and  it  makes  a  per- 
fect die  in  the  steel  and  don't  hurt  the  cast-iron  force  at  all — 
doesn't  even  mark  it — you  could  not  tell  by  the  looks  of  the 
cast-iron  force  that  it  ever  had  been  near  a  piece  of  steel,  much 
less  been  driven  bodily  into  the  solid  metal,  so  as  to  produce 
its  exact  and  perfect  reverse  in  the  block,  and  make  a  perfect 
block  in  which  to  produce  its  own  shape. " 

The  other  man  said  to  this  gentleman  that  it  did  not  seem 
possible  such  things  could  be;  that  he  should  think  the  cast- 
iron  image  or  force  would  be  crushed  to  atoms,  and  the  hot 
steel  block  on  the  anvil  would  spread  out,  so  that  the  result  of 
the  50-foot  drop  of  the  hammer  would  be  a  couple  of  ruins — 
a  ruined  force  and  a  ruined  die-block,  instead  of  an  instanta- 
neously made,  absolutely  perfect  die,  and  an  uninjured  force. 

To  this  his  informant  replied  that  he  himself  would  have 


76  DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

thought  the  same  thing,  but  that  what  did  result  was  a  perfect 
die,  exactly  reproducing  in  reverse  every  detail  of  the  piece 
put  on  the  bottom  of  the  hammer. 

The  seeker  after  new  things  went  to  Bridgeport  and  asked 
at  E.  P.  Bullard's  machine  tool  works  if  there  was  a  man  in 
Bridgeport  who  was  making  a  drop-die  by  dropping  a  big 
hammer  50  feet,  with  the  force  on  the  bottom  of  the  hammer, 
into  a  block  of  hot  steel,  and  making  a  perfect  die  at  one  blow. 
This  question  was  met  with  a  smile  and  the  reply,  "Not  that 
we  ever  heard  of."  I  said:  "You  would  be  likely  to  know  if 
such  a  thing  was  being  done?" 

"Very  likely  indeed,"  was  the  reply.  A  search  in  the 
directory  disclosed  the  name  of  "The  Patent  Die  Co.,"  88 
Cannon  Street,  and  at  88  Cannon  Street  Mr.  Champney  was 
found,  and  with  a  drop  of  52  feet,  and  a  lot  of  die-sinkers, 
and  a  vast  number  of  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of  the  dies 
conceivable,  and  an  order-book  full  of  orders  from'  such  firms 
as  the  Gorham  Company. 

Thirty-five  years  ago  the  idea  struck  Mr.  Champney  that 
at  a  suitable  velocity  a  cast-iron  medal,  or  even  a  gold  or  silver 
coin,  could  be  driven  bodily  into  a  block  of  hot  steel,  so  as  to 
produce  a  perfect  die  in  which  its  own  shape  could  be  dupli- 
cated by  use  of  the  coining  press.  Experiments  convinced 
him  of  the  truth  of  his  theory.  He  went  to  Europe  with  this 
invention,  and  remained  abroad  for  ten  or  twelve  years,  in 
close  connection,  for  a  part  of  the  time,  with  the  Russian 
Mint,  where  he  made  dies  which  gage  from  30  to  70,000 
impressions,  as  against  6,200  impressions  for  the  life  of  any 
die  there  made  by  the  ordinary  methods  for  the  same  piece, 
and  was  decorated  by  the  Emperor  with  the  order  of  Stan- 
islaus for  his  invention.  After  these  years  in  Europe,  Mr. 
Champney  returned  to  America,  and  proceeded  to  perfect  his 
methods  so  as  to  make  them  applicable  to  dies  of  all  sizes;  his 
previous  work  had  been  for  coining  purposes  and  medals  only. 
He  started  to  work  in  Bridgeport,  where  he  made  many  dies 
for  leading  firms  of  silversmiths  and  metal  workers  all  over 
the  United  States. 


DIE-SINKING    AND    EMBOSSING    PRACTISE    METHODS  77 

His  original  idea  was  simplicity  itself — given  a  model  for 
a  piece  of  work  to  be  produced  in  dies,  the  simplest  method 
possible  is,  of  course,  to  drive  that  model  into  a  block  of  steel, 
so  as  to  leave  its  perfect  image  in  the  soft  block;  then  take  the 
model  out  of  the  die  and  harden  the  die,  and  there  it  is.  As 
is  usual,  between  the  happy  thought  and  its  happy  realization, 
lay  a  waste  of  dreary  desert  years,  the  story  of  which  Mr. 
Champney  will  not  have  printed.  The  old  story,  no  doubt, 
of  shining  moments  of  success,  buried  in  speedily  following 
failures;  partial  gains  which  could  not  be  made  entire  and 
complete,  and  total  disasters  which  could  not  conquer  Champ- 
ney's  faith  in  his  theories;  finally,  in  Bridgeport  there  came  to 
be  a  small  establishment  doing  good  work,  patronized  by  the 
best  manufacturers  in  the  country,  and  possibly  the  nucleus  of 
a  large  and  prosperous  business  for  the  closing  years  of  Mr. 
Champney's  life. 

Modeling,  Casting,  and  Dropping 

The  method  practised  at  the  Bridgeport  shops  in  the  begin- 
ning, which  was  fifteen  years  ago,  in  producing  a  hardened 
steel  die  from  model,  was  this:  The  model,  a  bit  of  wax 
shaped  to  the  designer's  fancy,  and  mounted  on  a  block  of 
wood,  a  medal,  a  coin,  a  plaster  cast  of  any  object,  a  natural 
leaf  from  a  tree,  anything  in  short  from  which  a  plaster  cast 
could  be  taken,  could  have  a  die  made  from  it  which  was  not 
an  approximate  reversed  copy,  but  was  absolutely  perfect  in  its 
reproduction;  every  line,  every  elevation,  and  every  depression 
of  the  model  were  made  in  thousands  of  duplications  from  the 
dies,  which  were  mechanically  copied  from  the  models  by 
Champney's  processes. 

First,  if  the  article  was  not  suitable  for  use  as  a  pattern  to 
be  molded  in  sand,  a  plaster  cast  for  use  as  a  pattern  was  taken 
from  it,  and  in  this  plaster  cast,  as  a  mold,  a  second  plaster 
cast  was  made  which  was  a  duplicate  in  form  of  the  article  to 
be  reproduced.  Next,  this  last  cast  was  molded  in  fine  Troy 
foundry  sand,  the  same  as  any  piece  of  fine  iron  casting.  This 
sand  mold  was  faced  by  smoking  and  printing  the  pattern 


78 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


back  in  the  mold  until  the  surface  of  the  finely  divided  carbon 
facing,  deposited  by  the  smoking  process,  gave. an  absolutely 
perfect  mold  of  the  model.  Then  this  mold  was  poured  with 
Barnum  &  Richardson's  car- wheel  iron — just  a  good,  strong 
foundry  iron,  nothing  secret  or  special  about  it.  Mr.  Champ- 
ney  made  the  molds  himself,  and  he  also  poured  them,  melt- 
ing his  iron  in  plumbago  crucibles,  and  with  a  coke  fire  in  the 
furnace  shown  in  Fig.  94.  New  crucibles  are  to  be  seen 
standing  on  top  of  the  brickwork  of  the  furnace,  and  one 


FIG.  94. — Forge  where  dies  were  heated. 

which  has  been  used  is  standing  on  the  floor  by  its  side.  The 
furnace  was  a  plain,  iron-banded,  brick-work  affair,  with  an 
ordinary  grate  of  square  bars,  loose  fire-brick  doors,  and  an  ash- 
pit, all  of  the  most  common  construction.  At  the  beginning 
of  this  Mr.  Champney  was  neither  a  die-sinker,  nor  an  iron 
molder,  nor  a  steel  temperer.  But  he  became  all  three,  and 
his  iron  molding  came  very  near  perfection.  He  showed  at 
that  time  a  cast  in  gray  iron  of  a  large  medallion  which  was 
absolutely  perfect,  and  appeared  to  have  been  carefully  and 
beautifully  finished  all  over,  but  had  really  never  been  touched 
since  leaving  the  sand;  another,  a  "waster,"  not  good  enough 


DIE-SINKING   AND    EMBOSSING    PRACTISE    METHODS  79 

for  Mr.  Champney's  requirement,  is  reproduced  in  Fig.  97. 
A  steel  die  had  been  made  from  it,  but  it  did  not  bear  any- 
where the  smallest  mark  of  service.  The  quality  of  Champ- 
ney's good  founding  may  be  guessed  from  the  appearance  of 
the  surface  of  Fig.  97,  photographed  from  the  "waster"  men- 
tioned. The  force,  or  cast-iron  reproduction  of  the  model 
was  made  with  an  added  base,  about  -jV  of  an  inch  thick,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  97,  which  is  full  size;  this  base  is  faced  on  the 
bottom  so  as  to  lie  flat  and  firm  against  the  bottom  of  the 


FIG.  95. — Drop-hammer  for  sinking-dies. 

hammer  where  it  is  secured,  but  by  means  not  shown,  while 
the  hammer  was  lifted  and  fell  to  make  the  impression  in  the 
die,  or  was  driven  at  the  Bridgeport  Patent  Steel  Die  Com- 
pany's shops. 

Driving  Model  into  the  Die 

The  block  of  steel  into  which  the  model  was  to  be  driven 
was  not  hollowed  out  or  shaped  in  anyway  so  as  to  partially 
conform  to  the  general  outline  of  the  "force."  On  the  con- 
trary, the  face  of  the  die-block  was  roughly  crowned  both  ways 
in  the  shaper,  so  as  to  have  a  clean  metal  surface,  without  scale 


80  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

or  cinder;  the  crowning  varied  with  the  size  of  the  block.  It 
was  quite  high,  perhaps  X  incn  m  a  block  about  6  inches  long 
by  3  y2  inches  wide.  The  dies  were  made  about  the  common 
practise  for  thickness.  After  the  force  or  model  had  been 
"driven"  into  the  hot  steel,  the  metal  of  the  dies  was  raised  "up 
in  a  high  border  all  around  the  base  of  the  force,  just  as  it 
would  be  if  the  force  had  been  dropped  into  a  mass  of  very 
wet  clay,  and  this  raised  edge  lay  up  tight  against  the  edge  of 
the  base  of  force.  The  extreme  lift  of  the  hammer,  52  feet, 


FIG.  96.— The  die-sinkers. 

was  used  only  for  the  largest  work;  various  drops  of  the  ham- 
mer were  used,  according  to  the  size  of  the  die.  The  largest 
die  made  at  that  time  by  Mr.  Champney,  of  which  he  could 
find  a  record,  measured  12  inches  by  10  inches  for  the  top 
opening  of  the  die,  and  was  8  inches  deep  from  the  finished 
surface  of  the  die  to  the  bottom,  and  the  finished  die  weighed 
212  pounds. 

The  hammer  used  by  Mr.  Champney  weighed  1,500 
pounds,  and  had  an  extension  which  could  be  keyed  to  its  top, 
which  weighed  1,000  pounds,  thus  making  the  greatest  ham- 
mer weight  available — 2, 500  pounds.  With  50  feet  of  drop  the 


DIE-SINKING   AND    EMBOSSING    PRACTISE    METHODS 


81 


final  velocity  of  the  hammer  would  be  considerably  over  50 
feet  per  second.  This  was  reduced  somewhat  by  the  V-up- 
rights  which  guided  the  hammer  in  its  fall,  so  that  the  ex- 
treme velocity  attainable  was  estimated  at  50  feet  per  second. 
The  hammer  was  lifted  by  a  power-driven  winch  shown  in 
Fig.  95;  a  portion  of  the  hammer  is  also  shown.  The  dimen- 
sions of  the  hammer-room  did  not  permit  placing  the  camera 
so  as  to  take  a  single  picture  including  all  of  both.  The  lift- 


,  FIG.  97. — Specimen  of  work  done. 

ing  chain  was  attached  to  the  top  of  the  hammer,  and  was 
released  by  the  hand-line,  seen  coiled  on  the  left  upright  of 
the  hammer-guides. 

These  uprights  are  of  wood,  having  cast-iron  V-guides 
bolted  to  their  inner  faces.  The  bottom  of  the  hammer  had 
the  usual  dovetail  and  key  for  holding  dies. 

It  was,  of  course,  essential  that  the  die-block  should  be 
perfectly  confined  sideways. 

The  steel  used  was  "die  steel/'  made  by  Farist,  in  Bridge- 
port. Any  suitable  steel  might  have  been  used,  as  there  was 
nothing  special  about  the  steel. 


82  DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

Mr.  Champney  said  the  die-blocks  were  heated  to  " white" 
heat  before  being  placed  on  the  anvil  for  a  "drive. "  The 
actual  degrees  of  heat  was  not  given.  The  heating  was  done 
in  the  furnace  shown,  as  was  also  the  heating  for  tempering. 

After  the  driven  block  was  cold  it  was  planed  in  an  ordi- 
nary shaper  (the  only  machine  tool  in  the  place)  and  planed 
flat  on  the  top  down  to  the  proper  height,  and  was  then  passed 
to.  the  die-sinkers,  Fig.  96,  who  did  what  was  needed  in  the 
way  of  finishing  and  "matting"  to  the  working  surfaces  of  the 
dies.  If  the  force  was  absolutely  perfect  then  the  die  need  not 
have  been  touched  by  the  die-sinkers,  and  was  not. 

A  head  of  Rubens,  from  celluloid  impression  made  in  a 
Champney  die,  the  surface  of  which  was  never  touched  by  a 
hand  tool,  was  of  an  absolutely  perfect  finish,  as  were  a  medal- 
lion head  of  Ariadne  in  copper,  and  a  smaller  medallion,  also 
in  copper.  Both  the  head  of  Rubens,  which  was  driven  from 
a  casting  made  from  a  plaster  cast  of  a  Brussels  medallion,  and 
the  copper  medals  mentioned  were  of  the  most  perfect  surface 
conceivable,  and  all  were  struck  in  dies  which  had  never  been 
touched  by  a  hand  tool.  But  very  many  dies  were  made  in 
the  Bridgeport  shops  from  models  in  wax,  which  were  by  no 
means  perfect  in  detail;  the  petals  of  the  flowers  represented 
wanted  sharpening  at  the  edges,  matted  surfaces  were  left 
plain,  and  delicate  lines  were  omitted  entirely,  to  be  put  in  by 
hand  after  the  die  was  driven.  As  might  be  guessed,  the  very 
smallest  and  faintest  marks  on  the  original  were  reproduced 
with  absolute  fidelity  in  the  Champney  dies,  and  a  die  struck 
from  a  $5  gold  piece,  with  "Champney"  in  sunk  letters,  was 
absolutely  faultless  in  every  detail  under  the  microscope,  and 
the  die  of  the  "Head  of  Rubens"  had  a  perfect  polish  in  every 
detail. 

Heating  and  Hardening  of  the  Dies 

The  heating  and  driving  of  the  dies  under  the  hammer, 
and  the  hardening  and  tempering  were  all  done  by  Mr. 
Champney  himself.  The  heating  for  all  purposes  was  done 
in  the  natural  draught  Lehigh  coal  furnace  shown  in  Fig.  94, 
just  as  it  appeared  after  a  large  die  had  been  taken  from  it  to 


DIE-SINKING    AND    EMBOSSING    PRACTISE    METHODS 


83 


go  to  the  hardening  tub  shown  in  Fig.  98.  This  tub  was 
simply  a  barrel  cut  down  to  make  the  ends  of  a  die  holding 
grating  at  the  sides,  and  notched  still  lower  at  the  right  for  an 
overflow. 

Two  barrels  on  an  overhead  platform  were  rilled  with  water 
from  the  small  vertical  sup- 
ply pipe,  and  a  much  larger 
stream  was  piped  from  these 
barrels  down  to  the  harden- 
ing tub  (cut  down  from  a 
larger  barrel)  below.  This 
large  pipe  had  an  upward 
bent  open  in  the  tub,  some- 
thing like  2  inches  or  3 
inches  below  a  grating  made 
of  small  wires  crossing  two 
bent  round  rods  hooked 
over  the  sides  of  the  bar- 
rel, all  as  shown  in  Fig. 
21.  The  supply  stream  was 
small,  and  the  barrels  over- 
head were  ample  reser- 
voirs. 

Pure  water  only  was 
used.  The  round  wire  rods 
were  perhaps  an  inch  or  two 
below  the  water-line  estab- 
lished by  the  overflow  at  the 
right.  The  flow  in  the 
large  delivery  pipe  was  reg- 
ulated by  the  hand  valve. 

In  heating  the  die  the  face  was  not  allowed  to  come  in 
direct  contact  with  the  fire;  bent  pieces  of  sheet-iron  were 
wired  on  the  die  so  as  to  cover  the  sides,  and  an  iron  tray, 
considerably  larger  than  the  face  of  the  die,  was  provided  and 
filled  with  powdered  charcoal  or  bone  charcoal,  as  may  be 
thought  best.  This  tray  was  then  put  in  the  fire,  and  then  the 


FIG.  98. — Hardening  appliances. 


84  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 

die,  having  its  sides  and  edges  clothed  with  sheet-iron  as 
described,  was  laid  face  down  on  the  tray  of  charcoal;  coal  was 
added  around  the  die,  and  the  furnace  door  closed  until  the 
die  was  hot;  then  the  die  and  tray  were  taken  out,  turned 
right  side  up,  and  the  tray  was  then,  and  not  until  then, 
removed  from  the  face  of  the  die,  thus  keeping  the  die  at  all 
times  full  of  the  red  hot  charcoal  or  bone-dust.  The  die  was 
put  bottom  down  on  the  grating  in  the  hardening  tub;  the 
stream  was  turned  on  against  the  bottom  of  the  die  until  it  was 
cooled  about  half  way  up,  the  hot  charcoal  still  filling  the 
cavity  of  the  die,  and  perfectly  protecting  it  from  the  air;  the 
die  was  turned  face  down  on  the  grating  and  the  full  stream 
of  water  turned  on  so  as  to  rush  up  into  the  inside  of  the  die 
and  cool  it  as  quickly  as  possible;  the  die  was  returned  to  the 
furnace  immediately  and  drawn  rapidly,  after  hardening;  both 
heating  and  cooling  were  done  as  rapidly  as  possible.  As  an 
illustration  of  the  value  of  a  large  stream  of  water  delivered 
close  to  the  face  of  the  die,  Mr.  Champney  said,  that  a  die 
was  brought  to  him  from  the  Russell  &  Erwin  Factory,  New 
Britain,  for  half  of  a  metal  door-knob,  an  expensive  piece  of 
die-sinkit.g,  which  they  had  tried  three  times  to  harden,  and 
believed  would  not  harden  at  all;  this  die  Mr.  Champney 
hardened  so  that  no  file  in  his  place  would  touch  it,  at  the  first 
attempt,  by  the  methods  described.  The  Russell  &  Erwin 
shops  had  a  tempering  tub  piped  with  an  up-stream,  but  the 
nozzle  was  18  inches  or  so  below  the  grating  which  the  die 
laid  on,  and  hence  the  hardening  stream  was  too  much  dif- 
fused, in  Mr.  Champney's  opinion,  to  be  effective. 

Exactness  of  Size  of  Dies 

The  exactness  of  size  of  dies  made  by  the  Bridgeport  shops 
was  wonderful.  One  set  made  for  exhibition  from  half  of  a 
common  ball  peen  machinist's  hammer  cut  in  two  in  the  mid- 
dle lengthwise,  was  as  perfect  in  everything  as  can  be  imag- 
ined. But  Mr.  Champney  believed  he  could  make  dies  con- 
siderably larger  or  smaller  than  the  force,  and  could  also  make 
the  die-disk  crown  more  than  the  mode;  thus  he  said  he  could 


DIE-SINKING    AND    EMBOSSING    PRACTISE    METHODS  85 

make  the  die  driven  from  a  gold  piece  -gV  or  so  larger  or 
smaller  in  diameter  than  the  model  which  drove  the  die,  and 
could  also  raise  or  lower  the  center  of  the  die  at  will,  so  as  to 
increase  or  diminish  the  weight  of  the  coin  struck  in  the  dies. 
He  did  not  explain  the  means  by  which  he  could  do  this,  but 
said  the  result  was  certain  and  as  he  wished,  invariable,  and 
he  added  that  he  had  never  lost  or  cracked  a  die  in  hardening. 

Final  Development  of  Champney  Process 

The  full  details  of  the  Champney  process  have  been 
secured  since  the  foregoing  was  written,  and  were  for  a  long 
time  kept  secret,  and  even  to  those  who  had  a  general  idea 
of  it  the  entire  process  was  not  very  clear.  However,  I  pub- 
lish here  the  final  development  of  the  die-sinking  practise: 

If,  for  example,  a  die  for  striking  up  a  deep  hollow-ware 
bowl  was  to  be  made,  Mr.  Champney's  plan  was  to  first  make 
a  model  of  plaster  of  Paris.  From  this  model  a  casting  was 
made  of  the  finest  and  closest  grained  iron  obtainable,  with  a 
large  amount  of  metal  left  behind  the  model  for  strength. 
The  sand  was  then  cleaned  from  the  casting  without  removing 
the  hard  scale,  which  is  an  important  feature  of  this  process, 
and  it  was  then  keyed  to  the  hammer  of  the  high  drop.  This 
high  drop  was  rightly  named,  for  although  it  was  of  the  usual 
drop-press  design,  the  ways  are  eighty  feet  high,  the  lower 
parts  of  iron  and  the  upper  of  wood,  faced  the  whole  length 
with  steel.  The  hammer  itself  is  of  cast  iron  and  weighs 
3,200  pounds.  It  is  about  two  feet  square  and  three  feet  long, 
and  is  raised  by  a  windlass  operated  by  hand.  A  pull  on  the 
rope  attached  to  the  release-lever  allows  the  huge  weight  to 
drop,  and  on  the  way  a  latch  is  fitted  to  catch  the  hammer  on 
the  rebound,  for  a  double  blow  is  fatal  to  the  die. 

To  the  base  of  this  great  drop-press,  which  was  necessarily 
very  heavy,  is  fitted  a  cast-iron  ring,  which  is  3  feet  in  diam- 
eter and  10  inches  thick.  The  opening  in  the  center  of  this 
ring  is  square  and  large  enough  to  take  any  ordinary  size  of 
die-blank.  After  keying  the  cast-iron  hub  (or  type)  into  the 
hammer  of  the  drop  and  raising  it  to  a  height  judged  by  the 


86  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

operator  to  be  sufficient,  the  die-blank  S,  which  has  been 
heated  to  a  bright  red,  is  placed  within  the  square  opening  in 
the  ring  at  the  base  of  the  press,  and  shims  S  placed  around 
it  so  as  to  completely  fill  the  space  between  the  blank  and  the 
inside  edge  of  the  ring.  The  heavy  hammer  is  then  released, 
driving  the  hub  with  its  facing  of  hard  scale  into  the  red-hot 
die-blank.  As  the  displaced  steel  could  not  go  sideways  on 
account  of  the  shims,  it  had  to  go  upward  and  helped  to  bring 
the  resulting  impression  up  to  shape.  After  being  struck,  the 
die  was  annealed  and  the  scale  removed  by  pickling;  then 
enough  was  planed  from  the  face  to  leave  the  die  the  proper 
depth,  and  by  means  of  scrapers  and  rifflers  the  impression  was 
smoothed  and  finished  as  in  the  ordinary  methods  of  die-sink- 
ing. Next  the  die  was  "shanked"  to  the  press  in  which  it 
was  to  be  used,  and  after  hardening  and  polishing  it  was  ready 
for  use. 

Die-Sinking  Machines 

One  of  the  essential  elements  of  a  machine  for  sinking  dies 
by  cutting  the  stock  out  from  the  impression  seems  to  be  a 
slide-bed  with  two  lateral  movements  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  and  another  is  a  revolving  spindle  perpendicular  to  the 
bed,  with  facilities  for  graduating  the  distance  between  the  two. 
Other  movements  of  nearly  equal  importance  are  sometimes 
incorporated  with  the  machine.  All  are  modified  and  adjusted 
for  the  purpose  proposed,  and  every  adjustment  provided 
which  will  conduce  to  their  proper  employment.  The  gratify- 
ing result  of  the  whole  combination  is  a  machine  which  is  not 
duly  appreciated,  but  which  is  constantly  developing  unlooked- 
for  possibilities  and  capabilities.  It  is  like  a  trade  of  which 
those  who  have  worked  at  it  the  longest,  and  learned  it  the 
best,  will  say:  "We  are  always  finding  out  some  new  thing 
about  it." 

Die-sinking  machines,  as  now  made,  are  intended  to  be 
used,  whenever  occasion  requires,  as  copying  machines.  They 
are  so  arranged  that  a  model  die  may  be  fixed  on  the  bed 
which  carries  the  die  to  be  formed,  and  hence  these  two  dies 
will  be  moved  in  concert,  holding  at  all  times  the  same  position 


DIE-SINKING   AND    EMBOSSING    PRACTISE    METHODS  87 

relative  to  each  other.  A  place  is  provided  in  the  head  which 
carries  the  spindle  for  the  insertion  of  a  "guide-pin"  which  will 
hold  a  like  relative  position  of  the  spindle,  and  thus  if  the 
"guide-pin"  is  kept  In  contact  with  the  model  die  and  made  to 
follow  all  its  depressions  and  outlines,  a  cutter  fixed  within  the 
spindle  and  corresponding  in  shape  and  size  to  the  guide-pin 
will  remove  from  the  other  die  whatever  material  is  brought  in 
its  way,  and  produce  on  it  an  impression  which  will  correspond 
to  the  model  in  every  way  and  point  touched  by  the  guide-pin. 
The  correspondence  of  the  pin  and  cutter  in  shape  and  size  is 
important,  so  that  the  shape  shall  be  proper  for  the  work.  If 
there  is  any  variation  in  their  size,  there  will  be  a  uniform  but 
not  a  proportional  difference  of  size  in  the  impressions  of  the 
model  and  the  made  die. 

As  the  arrangement  of  motions  in  this  machine  is  such 
that  it  can  present  an  object  to  the  grubbing  of  a  rotating 
cutter  in  every  direction,  horizontally  as  well  as  downways, 
and  as  the  cutter  will  mill  away  and  remove  any  stock  so  pre- 
sented, it  is  evident  that  with  properly  constructed  cutters  it 
can  produce  work  of  any  shape  or  contour,  or  of  any  sharpness 
of  angle,  except  such  inside  angles  as  are  consequent  upon  its 
horizontal  motions.  The  acuteness  of  these,  if  produced  by 
rotating  cutter,  is  limited  by  the  radius  of  the  circle  of  the  cut- 
ter, but  if  it  is  necessary  or  becomes  expedient  to  cut  such 
angles  with  the  machine  rather  than  to  dress  them  out  by  the 
hand,  a  chisel  may  be  substituted  for  the  mill,  and  the  stock 
from  any  corner  may  be  removed  with  a  light  planing  or  splin- 
ing  cut,  which  does  not  strain  the  screws  more  than  their  ordi- 
nary employment.  This  application  was  especially  provided 
for  on  the  original  "Index"  of  the  universal  milling-machine; 
the  spindle  and  ball  and  socket  connecting  with  a  stout  lever 
by  which  endwise  motion  could  be  obtained. 

The  quality  of  work  which  the  die-sinking  machine  is 
intended  to  do  requires  that  it  should  be  made  with  such 
accuracy  that  will  fashion  work  with  undeviating  precision. 
It  is  in  fact  so  well  made  that  with  well-ground  cutters  the 
bottoming  cut  leaves  a  surface  as  smooth  as  though  it  had  been 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

stoned.  Parties  have  fitted  the  three  actuating  screws  with 
micrometrical  indices  by  which  its  actuating  motions  in  any 
direction  may  be  gaged  and  stated  very  minutely,  and  have  so 
balanced  its  movable  parts  as  to  render  it  delicately  sensitive 
to  the  touch.  With  these  nice  appointments,  determinations, 
and  susceptibilities,  it  is  competent  to  as  fine  preformance  as 
the  copying  machine,  noted  in  London  almost  one  hundred 
and  twenty  years  ago  for  its  work  in  copying  medallions, 
which  must  have  had  similar  capacity  of  motion,  and  have 
substituted  a  fixed  graver  for  a  revolving  cutter  to  have  secured 
its  finest  effects. 

These  remarks  about  the  die-sinking  machines  are  not 
intended  for  those  who  know  of  it,  but  for  those  who  know  it 
not.  It  is  a  prompting  of  business  instinct  to  seize  upon  the 
advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  employment  of  machinery 
as  soon  as  they  are  shown  to  exist,  with  the  same  avidity  and 
for  the  same  reason  that  specks  of  gold  are  picked  up  when- 
ever they  can  be  found.  So  was  the  world's  mass  of  gold 
gathered,  and  so  individual  wealth  is  accumulated. 

Closed  and  Open  Dies  for  Forgings 

In  most  shops  where  drop-forging  dies  are  used  it  will  pay 
to  use  closed  dies  on  some  forgings,  even  when  with  good 
contrivance  most  of  the  work  can  be  done  with  open  dies. 
The  difference  between  a  closed  die  and  an  open  die  is  this: 
In  a  closed  die  the  stock  cannot  escape,  but  the  overplus,  or 
whatever  is  taken  into  the  dies  more  than  enough  to  fill  them, 
is  thrown  out  as  a  fin,  and  is  removed  afterward  by  trimming 
in  a  punch-press  or  with  a  chisel,  or  by  grinding,  but  in  open 
dies  the  stock  is  worked  sideways  successively  until  it  is 
brought  to  the  proper  size  and  shape,  and  the  overplus  stock, 
if  any,  is  worked  out  at  the  ends,  and  simply  requires  to  be 
cut  or  broken  off.  It  will  be  observed  then  that  the  open 
dies  only  require  to  have  bottoms  of  the  impressions  made  to 
the  right  profile  because  these  only  impress  the  form  upon  the 
stock,  but  in  closed  dies  the  impression  must  be  correct  on  all 
sides,  because  the  stock  fills  the  die  and  the  shape  of  all  sides 


DIE-SINKING    AND    EMBOSSING    PRACTISE  89 

is  impressed  upon  it.  As  there  is  very  little  strain  upon  open 
dies  they  can  be  made  of  cast  iron  often  with  great  advantage, 
and  take  the  proper  form  from  the  mold,  but  closed  dies  have 
to  sustain  an  enormous  strain  and  therefore  have  to  be  worked 
out  from  solid  metal. 

It  is  advisable  in  many  cases,  and  especially  when  unskilled 
labor  is  employed  at  the  drop-hammer,  to  use  closed  dies 
when  the  extra  cost  of  dies,  the  cost  of  trimming,  and  the 
expense  of  extra  waste  of  stock  does  not  make  the  full  cost  of 
the  forgings  greater  than  it  would  be  if  made  with  open 
dies. 

For  some  work  which  can  be  dropped  or  forged  either 
way,  it  may  be  made  with  one  or  two  blows  with  closed  dies, 
while  it  would  require  more  than  twice  as  many  to  make  it 
with  open  dies,  and  yet  it  may  be  cheaper  to  use  the  open  dies 
on  account  of  saving  of  stock,  for  being  struck  repeatedly  first 
on  this  side  and  then  on  the  edge,  the  extra  stock  is  forced 
out  at  the  end  and  being  left  on  the  bar  goes  into  the  next 
piece  instead  of  being  trimmed  off  as  a  fin,  which  would  be 
necessary  if  it  had  been  made  in  a  closed  die.  The  cost  of 
trimming  is  also  saved  by  the  use  of  the  open  die.  The  cost 
of  forging  is  to  be  reckoned  from  the  bar  to  the  piece  deliv- 
ered as  a  complete  forging,  and  as  it  includes  everything 
expended  to  produce  it,  the  cost  of  all  dies,  trimming  as 
well  as  forging,  must  enter  into  the  account. 

Value  of  Modern  Machinery 

In  the  majority  of  shops  where  drops  are  employed  it 
would  pay  to  have  a  die-sinking  machine,  not  only  that  the 
cost  of  the  dies  is  cheapened  by  its  use,  but  also  because  dies 
can  be  made  with  it  which  could  not  very  well  be  produced 
without  it  by  mechanics  not  skilled  in  the  specialty  of  cutting 
out  accurate  impressions  in  steel.  This  increased  facility  of 
making  trimming  as  well -as  drop  dies  induces  a  greater  use  of 
the  drop  and  utilization  of  the  advantages  it  affords  of  produ- 
cing uniformity.  Pieces  so  perfected  are  cheaper  than  hand- 
forgings,  and  not  only  in  first  cost,  but  also  in  saving  much  of 


90  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 

the  labor  which  would  have  to  be  spent  on  them  if  they  were 
so  shaped. 

Some  men  seem  to  judge  of  the  value  of  a  machine 
according  to  the  amount  of  time  they  can  keep  it  running. 
They  don't  want  to  buy  a  tool  they  cannot  keep  constantly 
employed.  That  is  not  the  criterion  to  go  by.  Tools 
are  not  to  be  valued  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  time 
which  they  must  be  employed  to  do  the  work,  but  to  the 
amount  of  time  which  they  can  remain  unemployed  and  stii/ 
do  the  work.  A  manufacturer  would  hardly  think  it  wise  to 
put  a  large  portion  of  his  working  capital  into  a  machine  that 
would  be  only  used  two  weeks  out  of  fifty-two  in  a  year,  and 
yet  thousands  of  small  capitalists  have  invested  millions  of 
dollars  with  ample  profits  in  just  such  machines.  Where  are 
the  machines?  Standing  outdoors  in  the  fence  corners  all 
over  the  world.  Agriculture  machines?  Yes;  farmers  find 
that  it  pays  them  to  have  tools  to  do  their  work  when  the  field 
is  ripe  for  the  harvest,  and  to  do  it  quick,  and  then  let  the 
tool  remain  idle  until  it  can  show  its  worth  again,  and  manu- 
facturers can  learn  the  same  lesson. 

It  may  be  observed  that  the  die-sinking  machine  is  not  of 
the  kind  which  is  improved  by  standing  outdoors  in  the  fence 
corners;  the  best  care  is  none  too  good  for  it,  nor  are  the 
most  intelligent  and  careful  men  too  good  to  have  charge  of 
them. 

Circumstances  are  of  frequent  occurrence  which  illustrate 
the  benefits  which  may  result  from  the  ability  to  make  uni- 
form forgings.  One  instance  of  many  like  it  was  where  a 
large  number  of  machines  had  been  manufactured  and  sent  out 
by  reputable  parties.  It  was  an  old  standard  machine,  but 
they  had  made  some  slight  improvement  in  it,  and  as  is  often 
the  way  with  slight  improvements,  this  one  was  found  to  have 
spoiled  the  machine,  for  the  "slight"  alteration  in  one  part  had 
caused  a  great  alteration  in  another  part.  Various  plans  were 
devised  to  remedy  the  defect,  but  all  involved  too  much  trou- 
ble, until  at  last  it  was  discovered  that  a  single  forging,  if 
made  of  a  peculiar  shape,  would  answer  the  purpose,  but  the 


DIE-SINKING    AND    EMBOSSING    PRACTISE  91 

shape  was  so  intricate  and  difficult  to  make  by  hand  that  it 
would  not  have  been  thought  feasible  to  make  it  if  it  had  not 
been  pointed  out  that  drop-dies  could  be  cut  with  which  the 
pieces  could  be  made  with  uniformity  at  a  moderate  expense. 
This  plan  being  adapted  and  the  pieces  sent  out  the  defect  was 
remedied,  and  the  expense  of  returning  the  machines  for 
repairs  was  avoided.  This  is  simply  the  old  story  of  the 
advantage  of  interchangeable  parts ;  this  version  of  it  is  only  to 
show  that  the  benefits  of  the  system  were  obtained  because  the 
means  were  right  at  hand  to  secure  them  at  once. 

Prevision  and  Supervision 

This  suggests  an  illustration  of  that  old  story,  the  value  of 
prevision  and  supervision.  It  may  seem  exaggerated,  but  it 
is  a  cold  fact.  Some  men  were  once  grouped  together  in  a 
manufacturing  company  who  had  struck  a  business  bonanza — 
a  mine  of  wealth.  The  golden  sands  had  run  so  freely  that  it 
hadn't  been  necessary  for  them  to  know  anything  about  the 
real  economies  of  manufacturing,  and,  of  course,  when  they 
felt  inspired  to  practise  something  of  the  kind  in  the  name  of 
"business,"  they  saved  at  the  spigot  and  slopped  over  at  the 
open  head  of  the  barrel.  Without  bothering  their  heads  much 
about  the  matter  they  carelessly  classed  the  cost  of  supervision 
and  of  tool-making  together,  and  both  as  unprofitable  ex- 
penditure, or  as  one  of  them  put  it:  "As  a  standing  expense; 
like  the  brick  walls  of  the  shop." 

One  day  it  happened  that  a  man  came  along  whose  eyes 
set  so  far  back  in  his  head  that  whatever  he  saw  affected  his 
brain.  He  looked  a  little  into  the  way  those  men  did  busi- 
ness, and  finally  told  them  that  they  were  not  paying  out 
enough  for  tools  and  superintendence,  and  he  could  prove  it. 
They  took  an  uncanny  faith  in  this  man,  told  him  to  go 
ahead,  paid  him  the  fee  of  a  trust  lawyer  to  manage  the 
mechanical  department  of  their  business,  and  he  permeated 
the  whole  establishment  with  his  presence,  as  the  sunlight 
floods  the  entire  planetary  system.  He  put  thousands  of 
dollars  worth  of  tools  into  the  tool-room,  and  set  to  work  six 


92 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


times  the  number  of  tool-makers  they  had  employed  before. 
In  short,  he  modernized  to  the  last  extremity.  The  latest  and 
best  tools  and  methods  he  would  have,  and  he  did  have. 

What  was  the  result  of  this  headlong  expenditure?  It  is 
that  the  average  cost  of  the  product  of  the  establishment  is 
reduced  to  about  a  third  of  what  it  was  when  he  assumed  con- 
trol; the  demand  for  the  machines  they  make  has  kept  up 
with  his  improvements;  the  output  has  increased  in  proper- 


FIG.  99. — Forging  and  dies. 

tion;    more  men  are  employed;   the  average  of  their  wages 
is   higher  than  ever;     every  one  is  satisfied,   and  prosperity 

abounds. 

Hob  for  Forging  Dies 

In  Fig.  99,  a  forging,  of  which  a  great  number  were  to  be 
made,  is  shown  at  A.  As  dies,  for  making  this  forging,  it 
being  produced  in  great  quantities,  had  to  be  renewed  quite 
frequently,  the  making  of  the  forging  dies  in  the  usual  man- 
ner became  quite  expensive.  In  the  shop  where  these  pieces 
were  manufactured,  however,  the  expense  of  making  new  dies 
was  greatly  reduced  by  making  a  hob,  such  as  shown  at  B  in 
the  cut.  This  hob  was  made  of  tool-steel  and  hardened,  and 
had  a  projection  of  exactly  the  same  shape  as  the  piece  to  be 
forged.  Die  and  punch  are  shown  at  B. 

The  block  for  the  forging  die,  in  which  the  shape  of  the 
piece  to  be  made  was  to  be  formed,  was  placed,  together  with 


DIE-SINKING    AND    EMBOSSING    PRACTISE  93 

the  hob,  in  correct  relationship  in  a  hydraulic  press,  and  the 
hob  forced  into  the  die-block  the  required  depth  by  hydraulic 
pressure.  By  forcing  the  hob  into  the  die-block,  the  metal 
displaced  was  thrown  up  around  the  side  of  the  hob.  This 
surplus  metal  was  removed,  and  the  die  hardened.  By  ma- 
king the  dies  irr  this  manner,  it  was  possible  to  renew  the  dies 
at  a  fraction  of  the  cost  of  the  dies  made  in  the  ordinary  way. 
For  irregular  shaped  forgings  it  would  sometimes  be  necessary 
to  make  two  hobs — one  for  the  top  and  one  for  the  bottom  die» 


CHAPTER   III 

DROP-FORGING     DIES,    THEIR     DESIGN,      CONSTRUCTION,    AND     USE 
IN    DROP-HAMMER,     DROP-PRESS,    AND    FORCING-MACHINE 

Combination  Drop-Dies 

WHEN  a  drop-die  is  fastened  into  place  where  it  is  to  be 
used,  it  becomes  a  part  of  the  piece  into  which  it  is  fastened. 
The  more  firmly  it  is  bedded,  the  more  solid  it  will  become, 
and  hence  the  better  it  will  fulfil  its  duties.  The  union  of 
several  pieces  is  intended  to  make  substantially  one  sole,  solid 
piece.  If  it  is  a  lower  die  fixed  in  the  drop-bed,  it  becomes  a 
portion  of  the  anvil,  and  if  it  is  a  top  die  fixed  in  the  hammer- 
head, it  becomes  a  portion  of  the  hammer. 

It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  unite  two  pieces  of  iron 
together,  without  welding,  so  that  they  will  be,  as  to  the  effect 
of  impact,  as  solid  as  one  piece. 

If  you  take  the  blacksmith's  hammer  in  your  right  hand, 
and  let  it  fall  on  the  anvil,  it  will  rebound;  if,  to  prevent  this, 
you  stiffen  your  muscles,  and  exert  your  will,  and  bring  it 
down  with  all  your  force,  straining  against  a  rebound,  you  will 
only  induce  a  stronger  reaction.  If  now  you  take  the  flatter 
in  your  left  hand  and  let  it  rest  on  the  peen  of  the  hammer 
while  you  let  the  hammer  fall,  the  hammer  will  strike  flat  and 
dead,  without  rising  at  all  from  the  anvil.  The  flatter  and 
hammer,  together,  are  not  as  heavy  as  the  sledge,  but  if  you 
let  the  sledge  fall,  face  down,  upon  the  anvil  it  will  rebound. 
You  take  the  hammer  again  in  your  right  hand,  and  place 
your  left  hand  on  the  peen,  where  you  held  the  flatter,  and 
now  let  it  fall.  Do  you  stop  all  the  rebound?  No,  it  rises 
slightly  from  the  anvil,  and  the  tingling  of  your  palm  tells 
what  occurred  at  the  union  of  the  hammer  and  the  hand.  You 

94 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC.  95 

are  familiar  with  the  facts;  every  one  who  has  worked  in  the 
shop  has  made  the  experiments.  I  mention  them  only  to 
direct  attention  to  the  absolute  necessity  of  making  union 
between  two  pieces  of  metal  as  compact  and  unyielding  as 
possible,  in  order  to  secure  the  full  effect  at  the  impact  of  the 
force  due  to  the  blow.  Much  of  it  may  be  dissipated  in  open 
joints. 

Union  Between  Metal  Parts 

These  phenomena  convey  the  suggestion  that  a  falling 
compound  weight,  made  up  of  two  components,  one  above 
the  other,  in  contact,  but  not  connected,  strikes  first  with  the 
momentum  of  the  lower  part,  and,  second,  with  the  momen- 
tum of  the  upper  part,  subject  to  a  deduction  for  interference 
of  the  reaction  of  the  first  from  the  place  of  impact,  which  the 
momentum  of  the  upper  part  must  meet  and  overcome  before 
it  can  be  delivered  at  the  same  place.  When  the  two  parts  are 
connected  this  interference  will  be  proportionately  less  as  the 
connections  are  more  firm  and  compact.  No  union,  short  of 
welding,  can  be  much  more  intimate  than  that  of  a  flatter  rest- 
ing on  the  ball  peen  of  a  hammer,  and  yet  we  know  that  the 
break  in  the  continuity  of  the  substance,  which  occurs  so 
slightly  between  these  two  pieces,  makes  a  break  in  the  con- 
tinuity of  the  momentum  of  the  flatter  and  the  rebound  of 
the  hammer — otherwise  this  combination  would  rebound  at 
one  time  like  the  sledge. 

When  a  die  is  set  in  a  hammer  it  transmits  as  much  of  the 
momentum  of  the  hammer  to  the  object  which  is  struck,  as 
overcomes  the  interfering  reaction  of  the  die,  and  if  the  die  is 
small,  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  the  hammer,  there  will 
be  less  of  this  interference  to  overcome  than  if  large. 

If  it  be  desired  to  strike  a  blow  with  a  drop-hammer  that 
shall  not  rebound,  it  is  only  necessary  to  arrange  a  loose 
weight  on  and  above  the  hammer,  or  to  have  the  hammer  in 
two  disunited  parts,  of  which  two  parts  in  the  lower  one  alone 
has  connection  with  the  uptake  and  upholds.  The  greatest 
effect  of  impact,  in  proportion  to  the  power  required  for  lift- 


96  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

ing  the  combined  weight,  will  be  given  when  the  weight  of 
the  upper  part  exceeds  that  of  the  lower. 

Considerable  disappointment  is  sometimes  experienced 
when  it  is  found  that  adding  to  the  weight  of  the  dies  does 
not  proportionately  add  to  the  effect  of  the  blow.  The  remedy 
is  in  adding  to  the  weight  of  the  hammer,  but  relief  may  some- 
times be  obtained  by  getting  the  dovetailing  of  the  tenon  to 
perfectly  match  that  of  the  die-seat  and  fit  the  keys,  so  that 
they  will  draw  the  die  up,  as  tight  as  possible,  against  the 
hammer. 

But  whatever  the  facts  of  the  case  may  be  in  regard  to  the 
best  method  of  fastening  dies,  for  the  purpose  of  getting  the 
fullest  and  best  possible  results  of  the  blow,  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  all  things  in  drop-work  have  to  give  way  before 
expediency.  If  it  is  expedient  to  fasten  dies  in  a  drop-ham- 
mer in  a  certain  way,  for  any  special  reason,  whether  by  that 
means  the  full  effect  of  the  blow  is  secured  or  not,  that  is  the 
way  to  fasten  them;  and  if,  when  thus  fastened,  the  effect  of 
the  blow  of  a  certain  sized  hammer  is  not  sufficient  to  accom- 
plish the  desired  object,  then  a  larger  hammer  may  be  used. 
The  principle  of  drop-forging  is  not  persuasion,  it  is  compul- 
sion; it  requires  the  furnishing  of  power,  potent  enough  to 
overcome  every  interference  and  drive  the  reluctant  stock  into 
the  dies,  where  it  forces  it  to  assume  the  form  of  the  impres- 
sion. 

Die- Blocks  and  Impression- Blocks 

It  is  not  always  necessary  to  use  a  piece  of  steel  for  a  die 
which  is  large  enough  to  make  a  die-block  with  a  tenon  of 
the  size  which  the  bed  of  the  drop  requires.  The  die  proper, 
or  the  steel-block  into  which  the  impression  is  cut,  may 
often  be  economically  made  of  a  much  smaller  pattern  and 
held  in  a  die-block,  as  well  as  have  it  all  solid  in  one  piece. 
The  impression-block  can  be  let  into  a  wrought-iron  or  steel 
die-block  by  drilling  and  chiseling  out  a  recess  in  the  block, 
or  by  planing  out  enough  to  receive  it,  or  it  may  have  a  block 
of  cast  iron  around  it. 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,     ETC.  97 

When  the  steel  is  used  as  an  impression-block,  it  is  thus 
employed  because  its  wearing  qualities  are  demanded,  and 
the  requisite  strength  is  partially  supplied  by  the  material  of 
the  block  on  which  it  is  set. 

There  has  always  been  a  claim  in  regard  to  railroad-rails 
that  they  have  two  general  functions:  one  to  support  strain, 
and  one  to  endure  wear;  and  as  it  seemed  useless  to  be 
obliged  to  renew  the  whole  rail — whose  cost  augmented  with 
its  weight — simply  because  it  failed,  in  its  less  massive 
function,  by  wearing  out,  efforts  have  continually  been  made 
to  separate  these  functions,  and  as  the  growing  tendency  of 
rails  is  to  increase  in  weight,  this  consideration  has  the  same 
tendency  to  increase  in  weight. 

In  some  of  these  efforts,  the  scheme  has  been  to  make 
separate  parts,  to  be  permanently  laid,  for  upbearing  strength, 
while  other  parts,  intended  for  wear,  were  made  as  light  as  was 
consistent  with  the  purpose,  and  could  be  easily  removed  and 
replaced  with  similar  parts.  Other  plans  crossed  the  problem, 
and  had  the  rail  made  double-headed,  so  that  either  side  could 
be  used  for  wear,  while  the  opposite  side  always  contributed 
its  quota  of  strength. 

Making  Die  to  Resist  Wear 

Ingenuity  in  different  branches  suggests  similar  expedi- 
ents; the  replacing  of  the  worn  part  of  a  rail  is  parallel  to  the 
making  of  the  impression  part  of  a  drop-forging  die  of  steel, 
to  resist  wear  only,  and  hence  making  it  no  longer  than  will 
suffice  for  this  purpose,  leaving  it  to  derive  support  to  resist 
stress  from  the  bed  in  which  it  sets.  The  double-headed  rail 
finds  its  counterpart  in  a  mode  of  making  flat-faced  dies  which 
have  a  square  cross-section,  so  as  to  use  each  of  the  four  flat 
faces  to  sink  impressions  in.  After  the  impression  which  has 
been  cut  in  one  side  is  worn  out,  another  impression  can  be 
cut  on  either  of  the  other  sides,  each  side  serving  in  turn  for 
a  face.  If  the  drop  has  a  dovetailed  die-seat  in  the  hammer 
or  bed,  packing  is  made  of  the  necessary  form,  or  the  keys  are 
modified  to  suit.  Dies  with  straight  sides  cannot  be  drawn 


98  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

up  against  the  seat  with  keys,  nor  is  there  anything  but  fric- 
tion to  hold  them  firm  in  the  seat.  The  time  when  dies  shift 
in  the  drop,  whether  they  are  dovetailed  or  straight,  is  at  that 
instant  succeeding  the  impact,  when  the  reaction  takes  place 
between  the  die  and  its  bedding,  the  reaction  which  tingles 
the  palm  of  the  hand  on  the  peen  of  the  hammer. 

The  same  objection  lies  against  these  four- faced  dies  that 
is  raised  against  double-headed  rails,  which  is,  that  while  one 
side  is  used  for  a  bed,  and  the  other  for  a  face,  the  bed-side 
gets  so  bruised  that  it  is  not  fit  for  a  face,  and  the  face  gets  so 
cut  and  worn  that  it  is  not  fit  for  a  bed.  If  the  impression  be 
deep,  however,  it  is  much  less  trouble  to  redress  the  bruised 
sides  than  to  plane  away  the  whole  worn  impression  to  obtain, 
on  that  one  side,  a  new  face. 

This  plan  works  better  on  hammers  which  are  wide  be- 
tween the  uprights  than  on  those  which  are  narrow,  as  the 
strength  of  the  cheeks — which  they  much  need  to  resist  the 
excessive  strain  of  keying — is  not  so  much  impaired  by  remov- 
ing the  stock  to  get  the  extra  width  of  the  die-seat. 

Keying  Wide-Seat  Dies 

In  the  wide  die-seats  it  is  often  very  convenient  to  key  in 
an  open  blocking-die  alongside  the  finishing-die.  These  dies 
are  only  as  wide  as  the  stock  is  likely  to  spread  in  them  when 
worked,  and  are  often  the  scant  profile  of  the  finished  forging 
as  their  use  is  for  shaping  the  stock  sideways  so  that  it  will 
drop  into  the  finish  imprint.  Their  durability  is  not  the  same 
as  that  of  the  finishing-dies,  and  therefore  it  is  an  advantage  to 
have  them  separate  therefrom,  in  order  that  the  wearing-out, 
or  failure  of  one,  may  not  necessitate  the  renewal  of  both.  It 
is  the  general  rule  that  a  pair  of  blocking-dies  will  outlast 
several  pairs  of  finishing-dies. 

It  is  very  convenient  to  have  keyed  into  the  die-seat,  along 
with  the  dies,  some  kind  of  cutting-off  tool,  to  cut  off  pieces 
which  are  made  from  the  bar,  after  all  the  work  has  been  done 
on  them  which  it  is  desirable  to  do  before  they  are  detached. 
These  tools  are  liable  to  accident  and  require  frequent  sharp- 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC.  99 

en  ing  or  renewal,  and  simple  arrangements  are  easily  made  for 
doing  it  readily. 

Places  which  have  been  blocked  out  and  are  detached  from 
the  bar,  as  they  do  not  require  the  impression  to  go  clear 
across  the  dies,  may  be  dropped  in  steel  impression  blocks,  or 
comparatively  small  dies  which  for  support  are  placed  in  die- 
blocks  of  ample  strength  to  resist  breaking-strain.  The 
wrought-iron  or  steel  die-block,  used  for  this  purpose,  has  a 
recess  cut  into  it  which  is  of  the  shape  and  size  of  the  die- 
patterns  it  is  to  receive.  In  order  that  this  die-pattern  or 
impression-block  may  derive  any  substantial  and  trustworthy 
support  from  the  die-block  in  which  it  is  embedded,  it  must 
fit  it  with  absolutely  perfect  grip  on  all  sides  which  are 
liable  to  be  stressed.  If  it  is  not  so  encompassed  it  is  liable 
to  yield  to  the  pressure,  which  forces  it  open  beyond  the  limits 
of  its  elastic  recovery  and  then  cracks  will  soon  make  their 
appearance.  Frequently  the  latitude,  commonly  described  as 
loose-fit,  will  suffice  to  permit  the  die  to  spread  beneath  the 
force  of  the  blow  enough  to  crack  it.  The  recess  in  which 
the  die  is  held  should  take  it  in  nearly  to  its  full  depth. 
The  die-block  should  be  of  sufficient  mass  to  absorb  in  itself 
the  slight  rebound  of  the  die,  and  it  should  have  no  com- 
promise with  skill  and  economy  in  the  matter  of  its  being 
well-fitted  and  drawn  by  a  dovetailed  tenon  to  its  solid  bed. 

First  Principles  in  Holding-Dies 

In  the  matter  of  holding-dies,  it  is  a  good  thing  once  in  a 
while  to  get  back  to  first  principles.  Some  of  the  old  trip- 
hammer men  around  Worcester,  Milbury,  Sutton,  and  other 
places  in  the  New  England  States,  in  the  early  part  of  the  last 
century,  used  to  make,  instead  of  a  slot  or  groove,  a  mortise  or 
recess  in  their  hammer-heads  in  which  to  hold  the  upper  dies. 
These  mortises  were  perhaps  an  inch  deep,  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
smaller  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top,  and  the  dies  were  made 
to  fit  them  loosely,  and  wedged  in  as  tight  as  the  hammer 
struck  upon  them.  They  were  removed  by  striking  them,  first 
on  one  end,  and  then  on  the  other;  a  very  few  blows  sufficed 


100  DROP- FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

to  loosen  them.  As  long  as  a  man  runs  his  own  hammer 
exclusively  he  could  keep  his  small  stock  of  dies  in  pretty 
decent  fitting,  but  when  the  hammer  was  of  general  use,  the 
dies  soon  became  of  no  use,  and  would  drop  out,  sometimes, 
when  the  hammer  was  running;  so  for  such  hammers,  grooves 
were  cut  and  keys  used  in  Lowell,  Waltham,  and  Saco,  where 
trip-hammers  were  employed  at  making  cotton-mill  spindles 
and  other  machinery,  work  which  is  hard  on  dies,  and  requires 
that  they  shall  accurately  match  and  restrain  their  position. 
They  soon  came  into  universal  use  in  scythe  and  gun  shops, 
which  were  the  principal  places  where  the  trip-hammers  were 
used.  Small  trip-hammer  heads  are  liable  to  split  in  driving 
keys,  and  when  gains  or  slots  were  first  used  they  were  cut 
shallow,  the  tenons  of  the  dies  were  short,  and  the  keys  narrow. 
The  mortise  is  stronger  than  a  slot,  for  it  holds  like  a  band  on 
all  sides.  It  appears  to  be  the  best  way  to  fasten  impression 
dies  into  the  die-blocks. 

Bolt  Heading  Dies 

Whenever  wrought  iron,  mild  steel,  or  tool-steel  is  used  in 
quantities  as  special  or  standard  forgings,  there  the  designer 
and  fitter  of  forge-dies  and  formers  finds  employment,  and 
usually  at  increased  wages  over  those  of  the  ordinarv  machin- 
ist and  tool-maker. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  simplest  looking  piece  is 
really  the  hardest  to  get  a  perfect-working  former  for,  as  many 
have  found  to  their  vexation.  Bolt-heading  dies  are  perhaps 
the  simplest  and  best  understood,  but,  as  with  everything  else, 
there  are  certain  things  which  if  overlooked  in  preparing  them 
in  the  machine-shop,  often  hinder  their  proper  working.  The 
common  mistake  with  these  dies  is  in  planing  the  dies  separ- 
ately. They  should  be  clamped  on  the  planer  or  shaper, 
and  planed  in  pairs  and  the  halves  numbered.  With  the  two 
dies  planed  at  the  one  time,  even  if  the  dies  do  come  out  of 
the  chuck  a  little  out  of  square,  both  dies  will  be  nearer  alike 
and  fit  better  than  if  machined  separately.  What  has  to  be 
looked  for  in  either  case,  however^  is  that  the  end  be  square 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC.  101 

with  the  sides.  The  two  dies,  if  planed  together,  do  not  have 
to  be  perfectly  true  on  the  sides  or  bearing  surfaces.  They 
will  come  together,  as  they  should,  but  of  course  the  ends 
should  meet  squarely,  or  shimming  will  be  required,  and  this 
should  be  avoided  if  at  all  possible. 

When  the  dies  have  been  planed  on  their  four  outside  sur- 
faces, the  working  surfaces  are  ready  for  attention.  The  pieces 
should  be  clamped  end  to  end,  so  that  the  cut  is  taken  length- 
wise, and  after  the  surfaces  are  finished  and  before  removal 
from  the  chuck  a  V-channel  Should  be  cut  for  the  guide  for 
the  center  of  the  drill  in  the  middle  of  the  two  faces.  After 
the  dies  are  taken  from  the  chuck,  if  the  ends  do  not  come 
square  and  even,  make  them  so,  and  they  are  then  ready  to  be 
clamped  together  and  drilled.  The  clamps  should  have  two 
holes  drilled  for  compression-bolts,  just  far  enough  apart  to 
give  J/Q  inch  clearance  for  the  dies  to  enter  easily.  The  dies 
should  be  mated  on  a  surface  plate,  and  the  two  ends  that 
match  the  best  brought  together.  A  -f^-mch  piece  of  sheet- 
iron  should  be  placed  between  the  dies.  This  makes  the  hole 
slightly  oblong  and  compresses  the  iron  when  the  dies  come 
together  for  heading  the  bolt.  Otherwise  the  iron  would 
slip  through  the  dies  when  they  operate.  The  drills  should 
be  the  same  size  as  the  iron;  but  for  neat,  accurate  work,  a 
reamer  should  be  used  for  finishing,  as  a  twist  drill  sometimes 
makes  a  very  rough  hole.  When  reamed  to  the  proper  size, 
and  before  removing  from  the  clamps,  the  piece  should 
be  marked  1  and  2  on  one  end  and  3  and  4  on  the  other 
end  for  the  guidance  of  the  machine  operator.  To  keep 
the  dies  steady  when  drilling,  a  cross  clamp  also  should  be 
provided  to  bolt  the  dies  to  the  drill  table.  If  left  free  to 
move  with  the  drill  the  hole  is  apt  to  run  crooked.  The  dies 
are  then  ready  to  have  all  the  sharp  edges  removed  with  a 
coarse  file.  The  quality  of  the  work  and  also  the  amount 
produced  depends  a  great  deal  on  how  the  dies  are  finished. 
If  they  pinch  the  iron  on  the  corners  of  the  dies  more  than  at 
the  middle  of  each  semicircle  they  will  not  do  one-third  of  the 
work.  To  get  this  bearing  the  corners  should  be  filed  round- 


102 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


ing.  The  sharp  wire  edges  should  be  removed  also  from  the 
ends  and  made  slightly  countersunk.  The  dies  should  be 
made  of  tool-steel,  and  in  hardening  heat  to  a  low  cherry-red 
and  cool  in  oil.  The  temper  need  not  be  drawn. 

The  heating-blocks  are  the  next  to  receive  attention. 
After  all  the  surfaces  are  planed  true,  and  to  size  as  near  that 
of  the  gripping  dies  as  possible,  they  are  ready  to  be  hardened. 
They  should  be  heated  to  a  cherry-red  and  dipped  in  water 
and  not  drawn,  as  they  should  have  very  hard  working  sur- 
faces. 

The  headers  give  more  trouble  than  either  the  dies  or  the 
blocks,  for  they  are  hard  to  hold  in  the  lathe  and  the  working 

surface  on  them  has  to  be 
finished,  as  any  rough  sur- 
faces make  a  bad  job  on 
the  head  of  the  bolt,  and 
the  working-life  of  the 
header  is  cut  down. 

The  header  generally 
used  is  1^x2x12  inches. 
The  rule  for  the  heading 

end  of  these  headers  is  one  and  one-half  times  the  diameter, 
with  iV  inch  added  for  the  thickness,  and  of  course  2y2 
inches  wide  or  wider  if  wanted.  For  illustration  we  will  take 
a  1-inch  bolt;  this  would  give  a  header  as  per  Fig.  100,  both 
ends  alike.  The  rule  for  recessing  the  ends  is:  J/&  inch  less 
than  the  width  of  the  header  for  the  inside  circle,  ^  inch 
more  than  the  distance  across  the  corners  for  the  outside  cir- 
cle, and  one-quarter  the  diameter  of  the  iron  for  depth  of 
recess.  For  1-inch  bolts  the  dimensions  of  the  header  would 
_be  1-ft-  inches  for  inside  circle,  and  J^  inch  for  depth. 

For  finishing  the  recess  a  couple  of  flat  files,  shaped  on  the 
end'  to  the  profile  of  the  recess  and  used  to  scrape  the  rough 
surface  after  turning,  will  be  found  very  handy;  they  should 
be  ground  true  to  size  and  made  very  hard.  They  can  be 
made  to  clamp  in  the  tool-post,  but  they  are  more  handy  and 
quicker  used  as  hand  tools.  After  the  headers  are  scraped  out 


FIG.  100.— Header  for  1-inch  bolt. 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC.  103 

clean,  finish  them  with  a  piece  of  fine  emery  cloth,  so  that  the 
surface  shows  no  tool  marks  of  any  kind.  They  are  then 
ready  to  have  the  wire  edges  filed  off  and  especially  across  the 
center,  as  the  inside  circle  does  not  take  out  all  the  stock  from 
the  sides.  File  this  surplus  off  even  with  the  base  of  the  cir- 
cle and  polish  smooth.  It  is  then  ready  to  harden  and  should 
be  given  an  oil  dip  at  a  low  heat.  Let  me  impress  on  the 
reader  how  that  the  rougher  and  harder  the  headers 
are  made  the  less  work  they  will  do  and  the  more 
they  will  crack  in  use;  so  don't  let  some  "smart 
Aleck"  bolt-maker  talk  you  into  making  them  like 
flint.  FIG.  101. 

Countersunk  head  bolts  are  practically  the  same    —Head 
as  square  head,  except  that  the  head  is  made  in  the 
gripping  dies  and  no  header-blocks  are  required.    The  header 
is  of  the  same  dimensions  as  that  previously  described,  with 
one  end  flat.     The  rule  for  countersunk  heads  is:  Half  the 
diameter  of  the  iron  for  depth  of  head,  and  one  and  a  half 
times  for  the  large  diameter  of  the  head.     Taking,  for  ex- 
ample, a    >^-inch    counter-sunk    head    bolt,  the  dimensions 
would  be  as  per  Fig.  101. 

This  same  rule  applies  to  button-head  bolts.    Cone-head 
bolts  and  rivets  are  made  the  reverse  way  from  countersunk 
head  bolts;   that   is,  the  head  is  formed  in  the 
header  instead  of  in  the  blocks.     The  rule  is: 
The  diameter  of  the  iron  for  the  small  circle,  one 
and  a  half  times  this  for  the  large  circle,  half  the 
size  of    the  iron  with  j/6  inch    added    for   the 
Cone  head    depth  as  per  Fig.  102.     Rivet  dies  for  structural, 
bolt.         boiler,  and  car  work  need  more  care  than  any 
other  class  of  dies,  for  the  reason  that  mild  steel 
is  now  used  to  a  great  extent  in  this  class  of  work,  and  the 
dies  and  headers  have  to  stand  great  strains.      Both  dies  next 
the  head  should  be  slightly  countersunk  and  rounded  nicely 
with  a  fine  file. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  have  plenty  of  stock  on  the  sides 
of  the  headers,  as  they  are  under  great  strain  in  doing  the 


104  DROP- FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

work.  If  the  header  is  not  wide  enough  to  have  *^-inch  stock 
outside  the  recess — JMi-inch  would  be  better — have  the  header 
upset.  The  rivet  produced  is  shown  by  Fig.  103.  This  gives 
practically  the  same  rule  for  these  heads  as  for  the  cone  heads, 
except  that  the  depth  is  iV  inch  less  than  the  diameter  of 
the  iron. 

It  is  a  very  common  mistake  for  a  machinist  to  drill  both 
ends  of  a  pair  of  dies  the  same  and  make  both  ends  of  a  header 
the  same,  but  this  should  never  be  done,  unless  you  want  four 
pairs  of  dies  and  four  headers  for  the  same 
size  of  bolts.  Where  both  ends  are  made  the 
same,  they  can't  be  repaired  when  worn  out 
until  both  ends  are  gone,  and  that  hangs  them 
up  and  puts  the  machine  out  on  that  size 

until  they  can  be  fixed  up:  but  if  you  have,  say 
Rivet  head.  /  •     ,  ,     /    •     i  , 

y2  inch  on  one  end  and  y%  inch  on  the  other, 

and  two  pairs  of  each,  when  a  pair  needs  repairing  you  still 
have  a  pair  in  reserve,  and  the  headers  the  same. 

Forging-Press  Dies  for  Making  Hammers 

The  advantage  of  forging  hammers  and  similar  tools  so  as 
to  preserve  uniform  shapes  and  density  of  metal  was  recognized 
before  the  advent  of  the  forging-press,  but  this  has  helped 
matters  a  great  deal,  and  its  good  points  have  been  utilized  by 
many  firms.  It  is  rapid  and  can  handle  a  large  variety  of 
work,  the  cost  of  the  work  depending  largely  on  the  dies  used, 
as  they  directly  affect  the  time  taken  for  a  man  to  handle  the 
different  pieces. 

I  will  endeavor  to  show  their  proper  construction  in  as  sim- 
ple a  way  as  possible,  and  begin  on  the  simpler  forms  first. 

Saving  Unnecessary  Movements 

The  main  object  in  the  dies  should  be  to  do  as  much  as 
possible  and  concentrate  them  in  rotation,  so  that  each  opera- 
tion will  follow  the  other  without  the  workman  having  to  lose 
time  by  doing  unnecessary  traveling  from  end  to  end  of  the 
press.  This  takes  time  and  the  steel  gets  cold,  making  it 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,     ETC. 


105 


harder  on  the  dies  and  press,  and  very  often  hard  on  a  man's 
patience. 

First  comes  the  shear  blades  which  are  of  peculiar  shape, 
as  they  are  designed  for  nothing  but  hot  shearing,  and  must 
cut  the  bar  as  square  as  possible,  other- 
wise the  steel  buckles  in  squaring  the  face 
of  the  hammer,  and  requires  extra  work. 

In  Fig.  104,  B  shows  the  bottom  blade 
with  the  guide  to  keep  the  top  blade  from 
overlapping,  but  still  giving  a  tight  contact 
for  good  work.  A  shows  the  top  blade 
and  on  its  sharpness  and  proper  set  depends 
the  squareness  of  the  cut  and  length  of  the 
piece,  for  when  dull  it  "slides"  the  piece 
in  shearing  and  causes  variations  in  weight, 
and  as  every  piece  should  be  of  the  same 
size,  an  extra  J4j  inch  will  count  up  to  quite 
a  large  amount  in  a  day's  run.  The  punch,  punch-block 
and  stripper  come  next,  and  the  adjustable  gages  on  the 
punch-block  for  locating  the  eye  of  different  size  hammers. 


O   B    O 


FIG.  104.- 
Bottom  blade. 


D                             E                             G                              I 

\\     7                 \     7                 !\     7                 Y\  —  7 

wT 

-—  0- 


ZLJ 

F 


FIG.  105. — Complete  outfit. 

In  Fig.  10$,  C  shows  the  gages  attached  to  block.  The  front 
and  back  is  practically  the  same.  The  stripper  is  shown  over 
it,  and  the  punch-holder  with  the  punch  used.  Where  more 
than  one  press  is  in  the  shop  the  punch-holders  should  all  be 


106 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


made  the  same,  so  both  punches  and  holders  are  interchange- 
able for  any  machine. 

Making  a  Double-Faced  Hammer 

Suppose  we  want  to  make  a  double-faced  hammer,  like  TV, 
Fig.  9.  This  requires  top  and  bottom  drift  dies  E  and  F, 
Fig.  105,  smoothing  dies  G  and  H,  both  top  and  bottom 
being  the  same  in  this  case,  and  be  sure  that  the  working  sur- 
faces be  rounded  nicely  to  avoid  cutting  the  hot  steel. 

The  breaking-down  dies,  /  and  /,  are  the  same  as  dies  G 
and  H9  except  having  J^  inch  more  space  between  them  for 


0 


A 

0 


FIG.  106.  FIG.  107.  FIG.  108. 

Making  a  double-faced  hammer. 

the  edges  of  the  hammer.  The  surfacing-die  is  merely  a 
broad  flat  top  used  to  keep  the  hammers  of  one  length  before 
punching,  and  should  be  made  short  enough  to  take  in  the 
largest  hammer  made.  The  difference  in  size  and  length  of 
hammers  is  made  up  by  different  thicknesses  of  iron-plates 
laid  on  the  bottom  die-table. 

These  dies  will  make  from  six  to  ten  sizes  of  hammers,  by 
making  them  for  the  largest  size  first  and  putting  j/8  inch 
liners  under  the  dies  for  each  smaller  size  hammer  made.  All 
dies  shown  are  in  place  on  the  press  for  each  operation  in  Fig. 

108. 

The  Finishing  of  the  Dies 

Great  care  is  required  that  the  dies  should  be  finished  as 
smooth  and  true  as  possible,  as  any  tool-marks  will  work  into 


DROP- FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC. 


107 


FIG.  109. — Breaking-down  dies. 


the  hot  steel,  and  if  not  true 

they  will  not  only  leave  high 

and  low  places  on  the  work, 

but    get    the    tool    out     of 

square.     These  marks  some- 
times    cause     hammers     to 

crack    in     hardening.      All 

working  faces  of  dies  should 

be  hardened. 

In     making    a    cross   or 

straight    peen    hammer  the 

dies  M  M  leave  the  peen 

in   the    shape   shown   at   L, 

Fig.  107,  and  the  surplus  is 

nipped  off  by  the  hot  shears 

first  shown. 

For  economy  and  saving 

of  machine-work,  a  great  many  of  these  dies  can  be  made 

with  a  cast-iron  base,  saving  two-thirds  cost  of  die  in  both 

steel  and  machinists'  work,  after  the  first  set  is  made.     But 

great  care  must  be  taken 
to  have  the  casting  of 
the  toughest  possible 
mixture,  otherwise  it  is 
liable  to  crush  and  get 
out  of  true.  The  sides 
are  also  liable  to  frac- 
ture where  the  gib  of 
the  steel  face  is  keyed 
on.  I  think  on  the 
whole  it  is  better  to 
make  these  founda- 
tion-blocks of  low- 
grade  steel.  They 
should  be  put  together 
with  keys  and  dove- 
FIG.  110. — Formers  for  eye.  tails,  using  large  fillits 


108 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


to  strengthen  the  sides.  The 
steel  faces  should  be  at  least 
one-third  the  height  of  the  fin- 
ished die.  When  made  too 
thin,  they  soon  get  soft,  wear 
out  of  shape,  and  buckle,  for 
they  are  constantly  subjected 
to  great  heat  and  strains  while 
in  use. 

Few  Dies  Needed  for  For- 
ging-Press 

It  would  seem  at  first 
glance  that  the  variety  of 
work  on  a  forging-machine 

press  would  require  a  very  large  number  of  dies,  but  such  is 
not  the  case.  For  with  the  addition  of  subblocks  a  great 
many  dies  can  be  used  for  different  purposes,  and  even  with- 
out them  it  must  be  remembered  that  a  latitude  of  1  V2  inches 


FIG.  111. — Swaging  dies. 


FIG.  112. — Arrangement  of  dies. 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC. 


109 


is  possible.  In  tool-work  we  seldom  forge  a  piece  over  3 
inches  square,  and  one  set  of  dies  will  answer  for  from  10  to 
1  $  different  size  articles,  as  iV  inch  taken  off  or  put  on  the 
hammer  makes  quite  a  difference  in  the  weight,  and  often 
the  only  variation  will  be  in  the  length,  which  makes  sev- 
eral pounds  difference  in  the  weight. 

We  will  take  for  example  a  single  and  double-faced  spall- 


\< 6H- H *-2H^ 

-PEE3-    -E3S 


FIG.  113. — Forging-machine  jobs. 

ing-hammer  and  an  ordinary  stone  sledge.  One  set  of  dies 
will  make  all  of  these  tools,  the  only  difference  being  in  the 
bevels  and  the  pinching-dies  for  the  cutting  ends.  The 
straight  sides  are  all  the  same,  for  no  upsetting-dies  are  used 
on  these  hammers,  as  the  beveling-dies  to  break  down  the 
edges  on  the  stone  sledges  take  their  place.  A  certain  amount 
of  stock  must  be  added  to  both  hammers,  as  they  kick  back 


110 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


unless  pinched  down,  so  as  to  leave  about  ^  inch  to  be 
sheared  off.  The  shear-blades  should  be  sharp  for  this,  as 
when  they  are  dull  they  drag,  and  this  fin  must  be  ground  off. 

Most  of  the  dies  for  this  job 
are  similar  to  those  shown  in 
Fig.  105. 

Set  of  Tools  for  Forging  a 
Fulcrum  Bracket  . 

During  recent  years  much 
progress  has  been  made  in  for- 
ging and  in  smith-work  gen- 
erally. The  old  and  more 
tedious  methods  are  dying  out, 
as  forging-machines  and  appli- 
ances are  adapted  to  the  work. 
Among  these  the  swaging-ma- 
chine  deserves  particular  at- 
tention, and  on  straight  work 
it  is  really  a  labor-saving  device 
in  every  sense  of  the  word.  I 
wish  to  illustrate  a  set  of  tools  used  in  the  machine  for  making 
a  fulcrum-bracket  in  connection  with  railway-brake  gear. 
These  tools,  however,  are  not  confined  to  this  particular  job. 
As  will  be  seen,  the  job  is  admirably  suited  for  the  swaging- 
machine;  to  drop-forge  it  would  be  a 
waste  of  time  and  material.  Fig.  109 
shows  a  set  of  breaking-down  dies, 
Fig.  110  a  set  of  formers  for  shaping 
the  eye,  Fig.  Ill  an  ordinary  set  of 
fa,  1,  and  I  fa  inch  swaging-dies, 
Fig.  115  a  set  of  cutters  the  construc- 
tion of  which  will  be  readily  under- 
stood from  the  sketches.  Fig.  112 

shows  the  arrangement  of  these  dies  in  the  machine  and  the 
method  of  securing  in  place.  The  stroke  of  the  upper  rams 
is  y±  inch,  and  they  make  600  working-strokes  per  minute. 


FIG.  114. — Machine  dies. 


FIG.  115.— Pin-end. 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC. 


Ill 


FIG.  116.- 
Squeezed  iron. 


All  the  lower  rams  are  adjustable  and  can  be  instantly  raised 
or  lowered  at  the  will  of  the  operator.  At  the  side  of  the  ma- 
chine is  a  hot  circular  saw. 

The  blank  shown  at  b  is  cut  off  at  the  shears  to  the  re- 
quired length,  very  little  being  al- 
lowed for  scrap.  It  is  then  brought 
to  a  working-heat  in  a  suitable  fur- 
nace, which  should  hold  at  least  six 
pieces  and  is  fed  into  cutters  D 
where,  by  means  of  the  gage  shown, 
first  one  side  of  the  collar  is  formed 
and  then  the  other,  as  seen  in  Fig. 
111.  In  the  same  heat  the  short  end  is  rapidly  broken  down 
between  the  dies  A  and  swaged  to  the  required  diameter  by 
first  passing  it  through  the  Ij^-inch  swage  and  the  1-inch  in 
Fig.  111.  The  operation  is  finished  by  trimming  the  end 
to  length  in  the  hot  saw,  and  all  others  are  treated  in  like 

manner. 

For  the  second  opera- 
tion, the  other  end  is 
properly  heated  and  rap- 
idly broken  down  under 
dies,  Fig.  109,  and  ap- 
pears more  or  less  like  d, 
Fig.  113;  the  enlargement 
for  the  eye  is  then  formed 
by  passing  it  through  the 
dies,  Fig.  Ill,  and  the  flat 
of  dies,  Fig.  109,  several 
times.  The  swaging-dies, 
Fig.  Ill,  are  then  opened 
to  receive  the  round  part 
between  the  eye  and  col- 
lar, and  this  is  neatly  finished  off  there  until  the  eye  is  correct 
in  distance  from  the  collar,  when  it  is  again  released  and  the 
bit  formed  on  the  end  sawn  off. 

It  should  be  understood  that  these  operations  must  be 


Moving 
Die 


Back  View 


Stationary 
Die 


Squeezer 


L 

Top  View 

\ 

Saueezer 

FIG.  117. — Pin-end  die. 


112 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


rapidly  performed,  two  heats  being  required  to  finish  the 
piece.  It  will  be  noticed  that  dies,  Figs.  109,  110,  and  114, 
are  so  set  as  to  produce  the  finished  size  without  any  adjust- 
ment. 

The  piece  at  ^,  Fig.  113,  is  another  forging  produced  on 
_.  this  machine  at  such  a  price  and  with 

such  a  finish  as  to  give  perfect  satisfac- 
tion all  around. 


Header 


1>F 


FIG.  118.— 
The  header. 


Forging  Dies  for  * '  Pin-Ends  ' ' 

One  of  the  jobs  set  down  as  impos- 
sible to  be  done  on  the  forging-machine 
was  the  forking  of  "pin-ends"  for  switch 
work,  but  it  was  found  by  a  little  experimenting  that  they 
could  be  made  very  nicely  and  rapidly,  so  that  what  formerly 
cost  18  cents  each  could  be  made  for  2  cents  each  by  the  new 
process.  The  pin-end  is  shown  at  Ay  Fig.  115,  and  the  dies 
at  Fig.  117.  Fig.  116  shows  the  iron  as  it  comes  from  the 
squeezer,  enlarged  the  small  way  of  the  iron  and  bent  to  a 
sharp  angle,  so  that  the  header  will  force  it  into  the  dies.  The 
bending  is  done  by  the  operator  as  the  dies  squeeze  the  iron, 
he  forcing  his  end  up  to  form  the  bend.  The  squeezing  and 
bending  is  the  first  operation,  and  the  piece  is  reheated  for  the 


f  

Grip 

I*     v. 

1  1 

31 

\     Squeezei; 

Stationary  Die 

FIG.  119.— Squeezing  die. 

finishing  upset,  and  should  be  very  hot  to  do  a  good  job. 
The  moving-die  in  the  pin-recess  should  be  given  plenty  of 
taper  and  should  be  very  smooth,  so  that  the  iron  will  slide 
into  the  recess  without  any  trouble  when  the  header  strikes  it. 
Any  sharp  corners  should  be  carefully  filed  off,  or  they  cut  the 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC. 


113 


Moving            J,_n 

Stationary 

Die 

Die 

T  — 

Top 

1—  - 

View 

iron  and  the  job  looks  bad 
when  finished.  The  header 
should  be  tool-steel.  The 
inside  corner  which  comes 
next  the  bar  should  be  given 
a  ^s -inch  rounding  to  form 
a  fillit.  It  should  be  given 
an  oil-dip  at  a  low  heat. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary 
that  a  job  requires  so  much 
extra  stock  that  to  upset  it 
would  require  going  over 
it  many  times,  and  would 
make  the  job  so  expensive 
that  it  would  be  cheaper  to  do  it  by  hand.  Such  an  ob- 
stacle was  encountered  in  making  a  pair  of  dies  for  "head- 
rods"  on  switch-work.  We  tried  upsetting  the  stock,  but 
found  that  the  outer  end  would  waste  away  before  we  could 
get  the  desired  amount  of  stock,  as  we  had  to  heat  them  four 
times,  and  the  job,  when  completed,  was  very  unsatisfactory. 
We  decided  to  weld  on  a  piece  to  gain  the  desired  stock,  and 
so  cut  the  heats  down  and  at  the  same  time  the  expense  also. 
The  bar. being  ^  x2^  inches,  we  took  a  piece  1^x2^  x  5 


it 

1  Squeezer 

Back 

View 

[ 

U*-  Upset 

FIG.  120. — The  die  construction. 


Stationary  Die 


)      Grip 


Q 


3  J 


Header 


FIG.  121. — The  die  construction. 


114 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


ra 


-2* 


inches  and  laid  it  on  the  bar,  heated  it  to  a  fair  welding  heat 
and  upset  in  the  machine,  the  dies  being  so  arranged  as 
to  round  the  back  of  the  "dab"  next  the  operator.  The 
construction  of  the  dies,  header,  and  punch  is  given  in 
Figs.  120  to  123. 

In  this  operation  there  need  be  no  heat  at  the 
portion  next  to  the  operator,  as  this  part  is 
punched  out,  but  the  part  next  the  plunger 
should  be  a  nice  soft  "snowball,"  as  they  express 
it.  By  Fig.  123,  showing  the  position  of  the 
iron  as  the  plunger  upsets  it,  will  make  the 
meaning  clear  and  also  show  the  "dab"  as  it 
comes  from  the  furnace.  The  operation  consists 
in  placing  the  "dab,"  or  piece,  about  l/2  inch  far- 
ther back  than  its  final  position,  then  placing  it 
carefully  in  the  furnace  (should  be  an  oil-fur- 
nace), and  when  a  good  soft  heat  is  reached  the 
"dab"  will  be  stuck  and  the  bar  can  be  handled 
easily.  Get  it  into  the  upper  portion  of  the 
dies  and  let  the  machine  squeeze  it;  then  drop  to 
the  lower  recess  and  upset  it.  This  leaves  the 
end  ready  for  punching. 

The  arrangement  of  dies  for  punching  the  slot  is  practically 
the  same  as  previously  shown.  Of  course  the  finish  of  the 
dies,  the  clearance,  the  grips,  and  the  matching  of  them  plays 


FIG.  122.— 
The  die 
construc- 
tion. 


Di 


1Mb 


FIG.  123. — The  die  construction. 

an  important  part.     If  the  workmanship  of  the  little  details  be 

neglected  by  the  machinist,  an  expensive  failure  is  apt  to  result. 

I  have  one  more  die  to  show  which  is  entirely  out  of  the 

ordinary  line  of  work  done  on  these  machines,  and  does  a  very 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC. 


us 


Moving      /'  /£ 
Back 

P\  \     Stationary 
'View 

neat  and  quick  job.  This  is  an  eye-forming  die  for  roun'd, 
square,  or  flat  iron.  The  one  shown  here  at  Fig.  125  is  for  1 
inch  round,  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  126.  There  is  no  header 
required,  as  it  has  no  work  to  do  in  this  case.  It  is  necessary 
to  have  a  liV  inch  pin  made 
to  squeeze  the  eye  over  on 
the  final  operation,  and  there 
has  to  be  a  plug  screwed  in 
the  moving  die  marked  X, 
as  this  is  a  bender,  and  pro- 
jects into  the  stationary  die. 
When  they  are  closed  the 
blank  is  bent  like  B,  Fig. 
126,  this*  being  the  first  op- 
eration. The  eye  is  closed 
down  just  enough  to  hold 
the  Iff -inch  steel-pin,  and 

placed  at  an  angle  in  the  top  FlG   124.— The  die. 

recess  of  the  die,  so  that  the 

end  of  the  iron  is  slightly  above  the  top  of  the  moving  die.  It 
is  then  ready  to  be  squeezed  to  place,  and  if  it  doesn't  form  the 
eye  as  it  should  and  the  end  is  not  tucked  to  place,  it  should 
be  squeezed  a  couple  of  times  more  and  each  time  held 
straighter  until  it  comes  right,  when  the  pin  is  knocked  out 
and  the  eye  finished.  The  pin  should  be  tapered  at  both  ends 


Top  Vl 


Inside 
Moving 

Jview 
Diex 

)  ( 

FIG.  125. — Eye-forming  die. 

and  be  about  3}4  inches  long.  There  should  be  several  of 
these,  as  one  gets  hot  and  has  to  be  cooled  off.  All  channels 
and  recesses  in  these  dies  should  have  lots  of  clearance,  or  they 
will  give  trouble.  They  should  be  scraped  as  smooth  as  it  is 


116 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


possible  to  get  them.  Care  should  be  taken  also  that  they  are 
just  slightly  larger  than  the  finished  eye.  If  too  big  the  eye 
will  not  be  good,  and  if  too  small  they  reduce  the  sides  of  the 
iron,  and  this  is  really  worse  than  being  too  large.  A  good 
plan  is  to  use  an  eye  just  the  right  size,  made  by  a  blacksmith, 
and  fit  the  dies  to  this  pattern,  having  them  so  that  the  eye 

works  in  the  dies  loose.  No  grip 

is  used,  as  the  bender  on  the  first 

A.  operation  prevents  the  iron  from 

slipping. 


FIG.  126.— 
One-inch  eye  rod. 


Forging  Dies  for  Round  and 
Square  Upsetting 

Working-dies  of  this  type  for 
forging-machines  should  generally  be  made  of  cast  basic  steel, 
as  this  material  is  easily  worked  and  can  be  depended  upon  to 
last.  I  prefer  it  to  tool-steel,  as  the  latter  often  cracks  and 
peels  off  with  little  use.  The  tool-steel  also  often  has  hard 
vSpots  almost  impossible  to  machine.  Cast  iron  is  used  quite 
extensively  for  these  dies,  and  to  illustrate  the  difference  be- 


FIG.  127. — Upsetting  die. 

tween  the  two  metals  for  this  purpose,  one  pair  of  cast-iron 
dies  for  truss-rods  lasted  about  three  days  and  then  had  to  be 
worked  over,  while  the  basic  steel  on  the  same  work  ran  six 
months  and  was  still  in  good  condition. 

Perhaps  the  simplest  dies  for  these  machines  are  the  truss- 
rod  dies  mentioned  above.     They  should  be  planed  in  pairs 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC. 


117 


and  perfectly  square.  The  dimensions  of  course  vary,  but  8 
x  8  x  12  inches  is  very  good  and  will  generally  meet  all  require- 
ments, except  in  very  long  upsets,  and  in  this  case  the  dies 
should  be  as  long  as  the  machine  will  take.  A  hole  should 
be  cored  through  the  center  to  pass  a  rod  through  to  handle 
them  with.  The  sketch,  Fig.  128,  gives  the  general  dimen- 
sions for  1^-inch  rods  upset  to  1)4  inches,  as  used  in  bridge 


V 


FIG.  128.— Upset  rod 

and  car  work,  the  upset  being  6  inches  long.  A  ^to  guide 
the  drill  should  be  planed  in  the  center  of  each  face  before 
removal  from  the  planer  to  serve  as  a  guide  for  the  point.  In 
boring  these  dies  sheet-iron  strips,  ^  inch  thick,  are  placed 
in  the  joint  before  the  1^-inch  hole  is  bored;  this  provides 
for  the  grip  of  the  iron.  The  strips  should  be  removed  before 
counterboring  for  the  upset,  as,  if  this  is  overlooked,  the  upset 


FIG.  129. — Upsetting  die. 

will  be  oblong  and  shy  of  stock  on  two  sides,  and  full  on  the 
top  and  bottom.  It  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  a  l}4-inch 
counterbore  3  inches  deep  below  the  grip  in  the  back  portion 
of  the  die.  This  practically  doubles  the  working  capacity,  or 
life,  of  the  dies.  The  plunger,  in  upsetting  the  iron,  wears  the 
outer  portion  of  the  dies  quite  rapidly  and  the  end  of  the  rod 
is  left  too  large.  This  causes  trouble  when  the  work  goes  to 


118  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

the  threader,  as  the  end  won't  enter  the  threading  dies.  The 
counterbore  is  to  work  this  enlarged  end  down  to  the  right 
size  and  answers  the  purpose  nicely.  It  should  be  put  in 
every  pair  of  dies. 

Drop-Forging  Dies  for  Gun-Work 

I  had  at  one  time  a  number  of  duplicate  sets  of  drop-for- 
ging dies  to  sink  by  the  piece,  and  when  the  men  on  the  job 
learned  the  price  I  took  them  for,  they  smiled  and  said  that  I 
would  not  make  day  pay.  There  was  not  only  day  pay,  but 
the  limit  of  piece-work  pay  reached,  and  some  time  to  loaf  to 
make  things  balance. 

The  piece  to  be  forged  was  part  of  a  rifle  which  figured 
extensively  in  our  settlement  with  Spain.  It  consisted  of 

magazine  plate,  trigger-strap,  and 
lower  tang  combined  in  one  piece, 
and  was  like  Fig.  131,  at  A,  as 
near  as  I  can  remember  it.  The 


E 


— e- — 


UPSETTING  ROUND  TO  SQUARE.     first    operation   was    to    make   the 

pIG   i3Q  usual    zinc  templet,   first  drawing 

the    finish-lines   and  then    adding 

finish  and  draft,  as  will  be  understood  by  all  die-sinkers. 
Next  a  piece  of  tool  steel  was  got  out,  l/%  inch  thick,  and  the 
size  of  the  face  of  the  finishing-dies,  which  I  believe  was  about 
8  x  12.  The  blocking-dies,  which  in  this  case  were  steel  also, 
were  about  12x12,  but  by  working  from  one  side  and  end 
the  difference  in  size  did  not  matter.  After  squaring  the 
plate  nicely,  four  holes  were  drilled  in  the  earners,  as  shown, 
care  being  taken  to  see  that  they  went  through  square,  so  that 
the  plate  would  reverse  without  being  out  of  square  on  the 
die. 

The  zinc  templet  was  then  clamped  on  the  plate  in  the 
required  position  and  marked  around,  and  the  plate  was  drilled 
and  filed  out  to  the  form  of  the  templet,  as  shown  in  B.  Two 
small  templets,  C  and  D,  were  then  made  the  shape  of  the 
inside  of  the  trigger-strap,  with  projections,  as  shown,  to  fit  in 
the  large  templet,  and  with  the  locating  marks  put  on.  These 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC. 


119 


pieces  were  held  in  position  with  solder  and  were  taken  out 
or  changed  as  desired.  The  templets  were  then  heated,  the 
edges  were  rubbed  with  cyanide  and  dipped  in  oil,  giving 
them  temper  enough  to  resist  the  stem  of  the  cutter,  whatever 
pressure  might  be  put  on  it. 

I  had  now  a  nice  profiling  former,  and  after  making  some 
cutters  like  E,  Fig.  131,  of  %-inch  drill-rod,  I  was  ready  for 
business.  The  templet  finished,  it  was  carefully  set  to  one 
side  and  end  of  a  die  and  clamped,  and  the  four  corner  holes 


FIG.  131. — Magazine  plate  and  die. 

were  drilled  and  reamed  to  a  depth  sufficient  to  hold  a  pin 
securely,  and  then  reversed  on  the  mate-die  and  the  holes 
drilled  and  reamed,  always  working  from  edges,  which  would 
coincide  when  the  dies  were  face  to  face,  and  always  reversing 
the  templet.  Pins  were  next  fitted  to  the  holes,  the  outline 
was  scratched  on  the  dies  through  the  templet  and  traced  with 
tracing  chisels,  and  the  impression  was  roughed  out  with  the 
usual  two-lipped  cutter.  The  templet  was  then  put  on,  the 
end  cutter  E  was  put  in,  and  the  last  trip  around  was  made 
with  the  hole  full  of  oil  and  the  fastest  speed  of  the  machine. 


120 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


The  lines  O  were  put  on  for  stop-marks  and  the  shank y  of  the 
cutter  served  as  a  former  pin  on  the  templet.  As  the  impres- 
sion was  of  different  depths,  cutters  had  to  be  made  with  a 
length  of  taper  corresponding  to  each  depth.  The  only  chip- 
ping was  at  the  circle  x  and  from  q  to  R,  the  trigger-strap 
being  wider  than  the  tang.  The  cutter  worked  so  nicely  that 
it  was  only  necessary  to  file  where  there  was  chipping.  After 
cutting  out  for  stock  clearance  and  putting  in  the  sprue  cut, 


FIG.  132. — The  axle  in  three  stages, 

the  dies  were  "flashed"  and  a  cast  was  taken  to  prove  the 
chipping  only,  the  match  being  perfect  every  time. 

I  will  say  here  that  there  were  six  pairs  of  finishing-dies 
and  six  blocking-dies,  making  twenty-four  impressions,  and 
the  balance  on  the  first  of  the  month  was  very  satisfactory. 

Unusual  Job  of  Drop-Forging 

The  forging  in  question  is  that  of  an  automobile  axle, 
which  from  its  length  makes  it  an  unusually  difficult  piece  to 


DROP- FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC.  121 

forge;  so  much  so  that  automobile  manufacturers  have  pre- 
ferred to  use  bronze  castings  or  welded  axles,  rather  than 
attempt  the  task  of  forging  the  axle  out  of  a  solid  bar.  Special 
interest  is  also  attached  to  this  job,  as  there  have  been  many 
attempts  to  forge  these  axles,  experiments  having  been  con- 
ducted by  some  of  the  leading  manufacturers  of  the  country, 
which  have  resulted  in  costly  failures.  The  job  is  all  the 
more  remarkable  in  that  the  axles  are  being  made  in  a  small 
shop,  with  the  tools  available. 

In  Fig.    132,  to  the  left,   is  shown  the  completed  axle, 
drilled  and  reamed  and  fitted  ready  to  be  assembled.     In  the 


I 


.---^-4^.w- J--— .^ 


f 


THE  AXLE 

FIG.  133. — Forging  dimensions. 

center  is  shown  a  finished  forging,  before  it  receives  the  final 
bending.  The  axle  leaves  the  forge-shop  in  this  condition, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  for  different  -automobiles,  different 
bends  are  required,  the  axles  being  otherwise  identical.  Fig. 
133  gives  the  general  dimensions  of  the  forging. 

The  forging  is  made  of  "Clipper"  steel  and  is  of  stock 
2^2  inches  square  and  cut  to  length,  each  piece  weighing 
about  44  pounds.  The  heating  is  done  in  a  coke  fire,  great 
care  being  exercised  to  secure  a  uniform  heat. 

The  breaking-down  dies  are  shown  in  Fig.  134,  and  present 
no  unusual  features.  The  stock  is  struck  into  the  die  at  the 
left  until  the  two  balls  have  appeared,  when  it  is  struck  in 


122 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


the  dies  at  the  right,  to  form  the  pad  at  Jf,  Fig.  133.  These 
dies  are  cast  iron,  used  just  as  they  came  from  the  sand,  with- 
out even  being  touched  with  a  file. 

The  breaking  down  is  done  under  a  4,000-pound  steam- 
hammer  of  the  usual  type.  As  a  part  of  this  breaking-down, 
the  forging  is  taken  to  a  1,000-pound  drop-hammer  near  by, 
and  at  the  same  heat  the  middle  part  of  the  axle,  just  inside 
the  pad,  is  broken  down  and  roughed  to  size.  There  are  no 
gages  or  stops  of  any  kind  on  the  breaking-down  dies  for 
locating  this  pad,  this  being  done  entirely  by  the  judgment 
of  the  operator. 

The  broken-down  axle  is  shown  at  the  left  in  Fig.  132, 
the  breaking-down  operation  being  of  course  the  same  for  each 


FIG.  134. — The  breaking-down  and  finishing  dies. 

end.  The  bend  at  the  ends  is  done  by  a  helper  and  sledge,  as 
the  axle  lies  on  the  anvil  of  the  drop-hammer  after  the  break- 
ing-down is  complete.  This  operation  is  also  left  to  the  judg- 
ment of  the  operator,  and  while  it  is  a  crude  way  to  describe, 
is  really  very  quickly  done  and  also  very  accurately  done. 

The  finishing-dies,  Fig.  134  at  the  right,  are  of  steel,  and 
present  nothing  unusual.  The  iron  band  shown  shrunk  in 
place  is  to  hold  in  position  an  addition  to  the  die  that  was 
found  desirable,  as  it  proved  more  satisfactory  to  make  these 
dies  take  in  as  much  of  the  axle  as  possible.  In  this  operation 
the  pad  is  inserted  in  the  lower  die,  and  if  necessary  the  sledge 
is  used  to  bring  the  extreme  end  over  the  die  in  its  proper 
place.  Great  care  must  be  used  when  heating  the  stock  during 
this  operation,  the  heating  requiring  more  time  than  the  work 
of  forging. 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC. 


123 


The  first  stroke  of  the  hammer,  when  the  forging  is  in  the 
finishing-dies,  is  a  light  one,  and  is  more  for  the  purpose  of 
settling  the  forging  into  place.  After  both  ends  have  been 
finished  the  axle  is  drawn  to  size  in  the  center,  the  distance 
between  the  ends  being  gaged.  It  is  possible  to  maintain  a 
limit  of  error  of  iV  inch  in  the  forging,  as  shown  in  the 
center  of  Fig.  133.  The  bending  at  the  factory  is  done  in  a 
screw-press  with  cast-iron  dies,  stops  being  provided  to  catch 
the  pads  at  the  ends. 


FIG.  135. — French  trimming  die. 

Throughout  this  job  the  personal  equation  enters  in  very 
largely,  without  which  it  would  be  impossible  to  do  the  job  at 
all.  The  operator  was  a  colored  man  who  worked  with  one 
helper.  The  dies  have  been  excellently  designed,  there  being 
but  about  8  pounds  of  scrap  left  during  the  operations,  the 
finished  forgings  weighing  about  36  pounds.  The  flow  of  the 
metal  is  almost  perfect,  and  the  axles  are  knocked  out  very 
rapidly.  The  entire  operation  is  a  most  happy  combination 
of  drop-forging,  drawing,  and  hand-work. 

The  axles  were  the  only  forged  axles  shown  at  the  auto- 


124 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


mobile  show  in  Chicago,  in  1907,  and  attracted  considerable 
attention.  They  are  being  forged  by  the  Bates  Forge  Com- 
pany, of  Indianapolis. 

Trimming  Wrench  Blanks  in  Dies 

Having  several  thousand  wrench-hammers  to  round  up 
and  straighten  on  the  back,  it  was  found  necessary  to  find 
some  method  speedier  and  cheaper  than  milling.  The  ham- 
mers, being  forged,  had  the  usual  fin,  and  this  had  to  be  gotten 
off.  The  arrangement  shown  is  what  was  used.  Fig.  135 
shows  a  section  of  bed  and  cutters,  and  an  elevation  of  the 


O 


FA 


B 


O 


FIG.  136.— Plan  of  die. 

punch  or  slide.  The  bed  has  the  inclined  grooves  to  receive 
the  cutters  A  A,  which  are  held  in  place  by  the  clamps  B  B. 
Adjustment  is  obtained  with  the  wedges  C  C.  The  punch  D 
has  the  hardened  steel-piece  E  secured  by  cap  screws.  Spring 
ciips,  F  Fy  held  by  one  of  the  screws  on  each  side,  hold  the 
work  when  it  is  placed  in  position.  Fig.  135,  at  upper  left 
and  right,  shows  sections  and  plans  of  the  cutters.  The 
serrated  cutters  are  used  to  take  a  roughing  cut,  after  which  the 
work  is  passed  through  three  times  with  the  plain  cutters,  the 
last  cut  being  set  to  take  not  more  than  .0015  inch,  at  a  cut- 
ting speed  of  11.66  feet  per  minute.  This  speed  seems  slow 
in  face  of  the  fact  that  the  corrugating  was  done  at  a  speed  of 
29.16  feet  per  minute. 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC. 


125 


I  can  see  no  reason  why  this  should  be 
so.  I  know,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  that  we 
could  get  satisfactory  results  at  what  would 
seem  only  a  moderate  cutting  speed. 

The  cutters  require  clearance  of  2>^  de- 
grees. It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  set 
the  cutters  at  an  angle  as  shown,  but  it  makes 
them  easier  to  grind  and  keep  in  order.  The 
best  results  were  obtained  with  a  very  slight 
top  rake  on  the  cutters,  not  more  than  the 
concavity  that  a  four-inch  wheel  would  grind. 
Too  much  rake  is  worse  than  none. 

We  used  several  grades  of  steel  for  cut- 
ters and  found  very  little  difference  when 
properly  hardened.  I  got  the  best  results 
by  heating  in  gas  and  hard- 
ening in  water  at  78  to  80 
degrees  F.  and  finishing 
the  cooling  in  vaseline, 
without  drawing,  using 
plenty  of  cyanide.  Do  not 
depend  upon  the  cyanide 


FIG.  138.— 

Wrench  after 

trimming. 


FIG.  137.— 

Wrench  before 

trimming. 

to  do  the  hardening,  but  heat  your  steel 
as  hot  as  the  quality  of  steel  will  stand  with- 
out damage. 

I  trust  the  reader  will  pardon  me  if  I 
digress  and  ride  a  pet  hobby  a  lap  or  two, 
but  the  subject  of  hardening  and  temper- 
ing this  class  of  tools  is  one  which  should 
receive  more  attention.  I  find  that  the  av- 
erage blacksmith  does  not  appreciate  what 
is  required  of  a  tool  of  this  sort.  He  always 
knows  just  what  you  want,  and  usually 
does  just  what  you  don't  want.  He  will 
concoct  solutions,  with  all  the  gravity  and 
mystery  of  a  "voodoo"  doctor,  when  pure 
water  will  do  better.  Solutions  without 


126 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


proper  heating  of  the  steel  are  deceiving;  they  only  case- 
harden.  A  tool  for  heavy  duty  must  be  hardened  through. 
If  the  right  degree  of  hardness  can  be  obtained  without  draw- 
ing, so  much  the  better.  This  is  not  so  hard  to  do  as  it  seems. 
Clean  water  at  the  right  temperature,  a  good  heat  in  charcoal 


FIG.  139.— Belt  punch. 

or  gas,  time  enough  in  the  water  to  secure  sufficient  hardness, 
then  a  quick  transfer  to  a  heavy  bodied  oil  to  finish  cooling. 
To  get  back  to  the  wrench  job:  lubrication  is  a  feature 
that  must  not  be  overlooked.  I  used  a  heavy  solution  of 
vegetable-oil,  soft  soap  and  water — 5  pounds  of  soap  to  the 
gallon  of  water.  This  did  better  work  than  -the  oil,  the  sup- 
ply being  at  about  15  pounds  pressure,  through  ^6-inch  noz- 
zles attached  to  a  supply  pipe. 

Trimming  Cheap  Hardware 

In  the  manufacture  of  the  cheaper  grades  of  hardware, 
malleable-iron   is   largely  used    instead   of    steel-castings   or 


FIG.  140. — Plan  of  die  for  trimming  A,  Fig.  139. 

forgings.  The  low  price  at  which  the  articles  are  sold  will 
not  allow  any  expensive  work,  such  as  milling,  to  be  done  on 
them.  They  are  usually  just  drilled  and  put  together.  In  the 
better  grades  of  this  class  of  hardware,  such  as  belt-punches, 
etc.,  making  the  joint  at  A>  Fig.  139,  is  the  principal  expense, 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC. 


127 


and  the  die  shown  in  Figs.  140  and  141  was  designed  to  trim 
the  joint,  which  can  thus  be  done  neatly  and  cheaply. 

In  making  the  belt-punch,  the  rivet-hole  is  first  drilled 
and  then  counterbored  a  little  more  than  half-way  through. 
The  part  to  be  trimmed  is  then  put  on  B,  the  stem  of  the  die, 
Fig.  141,  which  just  fits  the  counterbored  joint.  It  is  then 
swung  under  the  head  of  the  strippers  E,  which  also  act  as 


C 

E 

[sp 

1  1     1 

R 

D 

B 

1- 
D 

R 

1 
I 

i 

G 

FIG.  141. — Die  for  trimming  A,  Fig.  139. 

stops.  The  part  to  be  trimmed  must  be  counterbored  to  such 
a  depth  that  it  will  rest  upon  the  stem  B  and  also  upon  dies 
D.  Fig.  140  shows  the  top  of  the  die,  and  Cf  shows  the  posi- 
tion of  the  punch  when  the  dies  are  set  up.  In  making  the 
die,  the  parts,  D ',  which  are  the  cutting  parts  of  the  die,  are 
doweled  and  screwed  to  the  base  G,  meeting  at  the  center  to 
allow  the  hole  to  be  bored  the  size  of  the  stem  B.  They  are 
then  cut  away. to  the  required  shape. 
The  punch,  Fig.  142,  of  which 
F  is  the  holder  and  H  the  stem 
which  fits  the  press,  is  made  the 
same  way  as  the  die.  The  ribs  R 
are  put  on  the  die-base  and  punch- 
holder  to  prevent  the  die  spring- 
ing away  from  the  work.  The 


FIG.  142. — Trimming 
punch. 


hole  in  the  die  should  be  tapered  slightly  larger  toward  the 

back  thus  allowing  it  to  strip  easily. 

( 

A  Slab-  Truck  for  Forge-Shop 

The  cut,  Fig.  143,  herewith  illustrates  a  slab-truck  that  is 
made  to  handle  both  the  hot  and  cold  billets  around  a  forge- 
shop.  It  is  made  up  entirely  of  iron,  hence  there  is  no  danger 


128 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC. 


129 


of  destruction  when  handling  billets  at  a  white- heat.  The 
height  has  been  designed  to  conform  to  that  of  the  furnace- 
door  and  to  top  of  the  bottom  die  on  the  steam-hammers  in 
use.  A  heavy  hot  slab  may  be  pulled  from  the  furnace  and 
wheeled  over  to  the  anvil  of  the  steam-hammer  with  greatest 
ease.  The  construction  is  very  simple  and  inexpensive.  The 
axle  is  made  of  3  x  3-inch  wrought  iron,  and  the  two  wheels  are 
24  inches  in  diameter,  3  ^2 -inch  thread,  and  made  of  cast  iron. 
The  slab  rest  A  is  made  of  3  x  ^-inch  wrought  iron,  sup- 
ported by  the  3  x  ^-inch  braces  B,  with  a  piece  of  1  inch 
wrought-iron  pipe  C  acting  as  a  strut.  The  whole  is  bolted 
down  through  the  axle  by  a  ^-inch  bolt  passing  through  the 
pipe,  and  each  end  riveted  over.  The  support  D  is  of  $£  x  2- 
inch  wrought  iron  made  in  [/-shapes,  and  is  very  rigid.  The 


FIG.  144. — Hand-vise  handle  before  and  after      closing." 


handle  is  of  Ij^-mch  round  wrought  iron,  welded  to  a  ^  x  3- 
inch  yoke.  The  hand  bar  is  1  inch  in  diameter  by  24  inches 
long  for  the  accommodation  of  two  men.  The  truck,  as  a 
whole,  has  been  found  very  useful  and  substantial,  and  since 
its  trial  many  others  have  been  constructed. 

The  Possibilities  of  Planing-  Tools  for  Finishing  Forgings 

We  have  had  occasion  a  number  of  times  in  manufacturing 
to  do  work  with  special  shaving  or  planing  tools.  This  has 
proven  a  much  more  accurate  and  a  cheaper  method  than  the 
usual  way  of  milling.  We  ask  ourselves,  has  the  milling  cut- 
ter so  much  advantage  over  the  planing-tool  in  removing  stock 
and  machining  a  true  surface?  We  all  know  that  a  cutter,  to 
work  free,  must  have  sufficient  rake  to  allow  the  chips  to  be 
removed  without  too  much  breaking  up,  and  there  must  be 


130  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

enough  metal  backing  up  the  cutting  edge  to  withstand  the 
strain  of  the  cut.  This  is  the  case  with  all  cutting-tools, 
whether  a  drill,  a  milling-cutter,  or  a  planer-tool.  The  planer- 
tool  has  the  big  advantage,  in  that  it  can  have  ample  rake  for 
free  cutting,  and  at  the  same  time  have  plenty  of  backing  to 
support  the  cutting-edge. 

Now,  why  not  give  the  planing-tool  more  cutting  edges? 
Give  it  a  wider  cut,  and  make  it  in  series,  to  first  break  up  the 
surface  with  serrated  tools  and  then  follow  with  tools  to  re- 
move the  stock  and  make  the  finishing-cut.  The  question 
that  presents  itself  is:  what  is  the  limit  of  size  of  cut  that  can 
be  taken?  Given  a  machine  of  sufficient  strength  and  proper 


FIG.  145. — Hand-vise  forgings  "before"  and  "after,"  with 
shavings. 

tools,  may  not  a  surface  be  machined  in  one  stroke  that  in  the 
old  ways  takes  hundreds? 

•    Work  on  Hand-Vise  Forgings 

With  a  profiling  fixture,  the  hand-vise  jaws  shown  kept  a 
man  comfortably  busy  to  turn  out  150  in  ten  hours.  With 
the  set  of  dies  illustrated,  a  boy  easily  finished,  in  three  opera- 
tions, 400  in  9>£  hours.  With  a  stroke  of  sufficient  length, 
and  by  building  the  die  in  series,  this  could  as  well  be  in- 
creased to  1,200  pieces  in  the  same  time.  The  length  of  the 
cut  around  the  vise  is  about  nine  inches,  and  it  was  made 
at  about  15  feet  per  minute.  If  a  9-inch  cut  is  possible  and 
practicable,  why  not  18-inch  or  36-inch? 

Another  example  is  the  checkering  and  F-grooving  on  the 


DROP- FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC.  131 

face  of  the  jaw.  These  operations  were  both  done  on  a  14- 
inch  Hendey  shaper.  The  checkering  was  done  at  the  rate  of 
1,000  per  day,  and  we  did  not  think  the  most  exacting  would 
find  fault  with  300  in  the  same  time  on  the  milling-machine. 
The  grooving  went  easily  at  1,500  per  day.  The  work  will, 
we  think,  compare  favorably  with  the  average  milling-work. 
We  find  that  with  proper  rake  on  the  tools  there  is  less  ten- 
dency to  spring  the  work  than  in  milling.  In  some  instances 
we  have  found  it  possible  to  use  as  much  as  20  to  30  degrees 
of  rake. 

Another  point  in  favor  of  this  form  of  tool  is  that  it  does 
not  need  relieving  on  the  return-stroke,  as  the  work  can  be 


FIG.  146. — Punches  and  dies  for  trimming  hand-vise  forgings. 

removed  before  that  occurs.  Should  the  cutter  return  over 
the  work,  only  the  last  cutting-edge  would  touch.  This  is 
not  a  serious  fault  where  the  tool  is  strong  and  heavy  and  the 
material  soft.  This  practise  allows  the  cutter  to  be  fastened 
solidly  to  the  ram  of  the  machine,  making  it  less  liable  to 
spring  or  chatter. 

In  the  photograph,  Fig.  145,  are  shown' some  of  the  for- 
gings in  different  stages.  At  the  left  are  the  rough  forgings, 
showing  the  slot  or  gutter  in  the  handle  before  it  was  closed. 
It  was  necessary  to  forge  the  slot  with  considerable  draft  to 
the  sides,  as  at  <z,  Fig.  144,  which  is  an  enlarged  section  across 
the  middle  of  the  straight  part  in  order  to  get  the  required 


132  DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

depth.  They  were  put  through  a  drawing  or  closing-die  to 
bring  the  sides  parallel,  as  at  by  before  putting  them  through 
the  shaving-dies.  At  the  center  of  the  picture  is  a  forging 
after  it  has  been  through  the  roughing-die,  showing  the  serra- 
tions, where  the  cut  was  heaviest.  At  the  right  are  shown 
some  of  the  forgings  after  the  finishing  operations.  The  dies 
shown  in  Fig.  146  were  made  the  reverse  from  the  usual 
way.  The  punch  was  fitted  to  a  die-block  on  the  bolster-plate, 
and  the  dies  to  a  holder  in  the  ram.  This  arrangement  made 
it  easy  to  place  and  to  hold  the  forgings  in  position,  by  cen- 


FIG.  147. — Tools  for  "checkering"  and  grooving  vise  jaws. 

tering  the  slot  on  the  projection  on  the  punch.  The  work 
was  flooded  by  pumping  oil  through  a  tube  connected  with 
the  die-holder,  shown  at  the  right  in  Fig.  146.  The  dies 
were  1  %  inches  thick,  made  straight  on  the  inside  and  with  a 
30  degree  rake  on  the  cutting-edge.  The  cut  was  taken  by 
roughing-dies  and  varied  from  .005  to  .040  inch,  being 
heaviest  around  the  boss  where  the  die  was  serrated.  The 
second  die  was  enough  smaller  than  the  first  to  clean  up  the 
serrations.  The  third,  or  finishing-die,  had  a  uniform  cut  of 
about  .002  inch. 

The  tool  for  doing  the  checkering  on  the  face  of  the  jaw 
is  about  2  }4  inches  wide  and  was  made  to  fasten  direct  to  the 
clapper-block.  The  cutting-part  of  the  tool  projected  back  of 
the  center  of  the  clapper-block,  under  the  ram.  The  cutting- 
edges  of  the  tool  were  made  by  a  series  of  steps  of  about  .005 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC.  133 

inch,  and  were  given  a  rake  of  about  1 5  degrees.  This  was 
found  sufficient  to  give  a  free  cutting-edge.  The  object  of 
putting  the  cutting-edges  back  of  the  center  of  the  clapper- 
block  was  to  prevent  the  cutter  from  "hogging."  With  the 
cutter  in  this  position  the  tendency  is  to  spring  away  from  the 
work  under  a  heavy  cut.  The  cutter  for  making  the  grooves 
was  similar  to  the  one  doing  the  checkering.  Fig.  147 
shows  the  cutters  and  the  work. 

Forging  Under  Steam- Hammer 

For  pieces  of  considerable  size  and  bulk  the  steam-hammer 
is  substituted  for  the  hard  forging-process.  In  this  method  of 
forging,  the  hammer  should  be  of  a  size  to  suit  the  size  of  the 
work.  The  hammer-man  must  exercise  a  good  deal  of  skill 
and  judgment  as  to  the  power  and  speed  of  the  blows  de- 
livered to  the  piece,  as  a  too  powerful  blow  will  crush  it,  and 
in  the  case  of  high  percentage  of  nickel,  fissures  and  cracks 
are  liable  to  develop  which  it  will  be  difficult  to  get  out, 
and  which  may  show  in  the  finished  product. 

This  is  especially  true  if  the  piece  is  allowed  to  fall  below 
the  forging  temperature,  or  if  the  blows  are  not  distributed 
evenly.  If  the  blows  are  from  a  light  trip-hammer,  delivered 
at  high  speed,  only  the  surface  of  the  metal  will  be  bruised 
and  the  core  not  affected,  thus  causing  the  core  to  be  coarse- 
grained without  the  proper  cohesion  to  insure  the  necessary 
strength. 

A  heavy  hammer  descending  on  work  which  is  held  at  the 
proper  temperature,  at  a  slow  speed,  will  penetrate  the  mass 
to  the  center  and  allow  the  particles  of  metal  to  flow  to  their 
proper  position  and  insure  a  fine  grain  of  even  texture  and  be 
uniform  throughout  its  entire  size. 

Forging  Large  Pieces 

The  keeping  of  the  heat  to  a  good  forging  temperature  is 
more  difficult  than  in  the  hand-forging  process,  owing  chiefly 
to  the  difference  in  the  size  of  the  piece  forged,  as  the  hand- 
forged  piece  is  usually  small  enough  for  the  smith  to  put  in 


134  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

the  fire  and  reheat  it  the  minute  the  temperature  falls  below 
the  best  forging-heat.  But  the  hammer-forged  piece  is  many 
times  large  enough  to  be  handled  with  a  crane,  and  is  there- 
fore liable  to  be  kept  under  the  hammer  as  long  as  a  blow  will 
have  any  effect  on  it. 

This  results  in  a  very  uneven  structure,  as  when  'the  metal 
is  hot  the  blows  will  penetrate  to  the  center,  and  as  it  cools 
they  have  less  and  less  penetration,  until  only  the  skin  is 
affected,  and  the  annealing,  which  is  resorted  to  afterward,  can- 
not bring  it  back  to  the  proper  homogeneity,  as  some  parts 
will  have  a  denser  grain  than  others  and  therefore  be  stronger. 

Drop-Hammer  Forging 

When  enough  pieces  of  one  shape  are  wanted  to  wear  out 
a  set  of  dies,  the  cheapest  and  best  way  of  producing  these  in 
the  high-grade  alloy  steels,  is  by  the  drop-forging  process. 
They  can  then  be  made  in  one  piece  without  welds,  except  in 
pieces  which  are  many  times  longer  than  a  section  through 
them,  and  these  are  so  difficult  to  keep  at  the  proper  tempera- 
ture that  they  are  usually  forged  in  two  or  more  pieces  and 
then  electrically  welded  together.  The  oxygen-acetylene 
blowpipe  has  been  brought  into  use  for  welds  of  this  charac- 
ter, as  well  as  all  other  forms  of  welding,  and  as  good  results 
are  being  obtained  with  this  as  with  electric  welding. 

A  good  illustration  of  this  is  the  front  axle  of  an  automo- 
bile, which  is  usually  forged"  in  /-beam  sections,  4  inches  from 
the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  I,  2%  inches  across  the  flange, 
with  the  web  ^  of  an  inch  thick,  and  a  length  of  from  48  to 
54  inches.  These  are  generally  forged  in  two  halves  and 
electrically  welded  in  the  center,  but  a  few  of  them  are  forged 
in  one  piece,  although  the  first  cost  of  the  dies  and  the  liabil- 
ity of  their  breaking,  owing  to  the  axle  cooling  before  the  for- 
ging operation  is  completed,  has  made  this  method  very 

expensive. 

Drop-Forging  or  Squeezing 

In  the  drop-forging  process  two  methods  are  employed, 
one  being  the  ordinary  drop-forging  process,  which  hammers 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,    ETC.  135 

the  metal  into  shape,  and  the  other  is  the  hydraulic  press, 
which  squeezes  it  into  shape.  With  both  of  these  methods 
dies  are  necessary,  and  these  are  usually  made  of  a  60-point 
carbon-steel  and  in  two  halves,  an  upper  and  a  lower  one,  they 
being  generally  parted  in  the  center,  but  the  shape  of  the  piece 
controls  the  location  of  the  parting-line. 

The  dies  are  always  given  from  5  to  7  degrees  draft,  so  the 
forging  will  fall  out  easily,  and  they  are  left  open  on  the  part- 
ing-line from  y&  to%  inch,  according  to  the  amount  of  metal 
in  the  forging.  The  amount  of  stock  is  always  greater  than 
in  the  finished  forging,  so  it  will  completely  fill  the  dial  and 
the  surplus  is  squeezed  out  at  the  opening  on  the  parting-line. 
This  fin  is  afterward  trimmed  off. 

Setting  the  Dies 

One  of  the  first  and  most  important  points  in  die-forging 
is  the  setting  of  the  dies,  as  the  upper-half,  which  is  fastened 
to  the  ram,  and  the  lower-half,  which  is  fastened  to  the  anvil- 
block,  must  come  exactly  in  line  to  produce  a  perfect  forging. 

The  lower  half  of  the  die  should  have  a  current  of  air 
blowing  in  it  that  is  strong  enough  to  remove  all  of  the  scale 
which  works  off  the  piece  being  forged.  The  air-blast  should 
be  directed  so  it  will  not  cool  the  hot  metal  being  forged. 
Steel-wire  brushes  can  be  used  for  this  purpose,  but  the  air  is 
quicker,  and  if  well  adjusted  will  be  positive.  The  upper 
half  of  the  die  should  be  kept  well  oiled,  so  the  scale  will  not 
stick  to  that.  This  can  be  done  by  rubbing  a  swab,  well 
soaked  in  oil,  through  the  die  every  time  it  is  raised  off  the 
work. 

Accurate  Forgings 

With  the  dies  properly  set  and  the  press  adjusted  so  the 
two  dies  will  come  together  on  the  parting-line,  the  work  can 
be  turned  out  to  one  thirty-second  of  an  inch  of  the  finished 
size,  thus  making  much  less  machine-work  than  by  the  hand- 
forging  process,  and  when  grinding  is  to  be  used  in  finishing, 
the  work  can  be  brought  to  within  one-hundredth  of  an  inch. 

After  forging,  the  pieces  should  be  pickled  in  a  pickling- 


136  DROP- FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

bath,  of  a  diluted  solution  of  sulfuric  acid,  to  dissolve  the 
oxide  or  scale,  after  which  they  can  be  submitted  to  a  sand- 
blast, if  a  still  better  surface  is  desired. 

The  cost  of  drop-forgings  depends  on  the  number  needed 
and  the  number  that  can  be  turned  out  at  one  setting  of  the 
dies,  as  well  as  on  the  quality  of  the  steel  used. 

Forging  High- Grade  Steels 

Thanks  to  the  electric  and  autogeneous  welding-process,  in 
combination  with  die-forging  with  either  the  drop-hammer  or 
the  hydraulic-press,  all  of  the  highest  grades  of  alloyed  steel 
can  be  turned  into  forgings  successfully  and  their  strength  and 
elongation  retained;  but  this  is  almost  impossible  by  the  hand 
or  hammer-forging  process,  especially  if  welds  are  made  neces- 
sary by  the  shape  of  the  piece.  One  of  the  alloy  steels  that  is 
being  manufactured  into  die-forgings  has  the  following  chem- 
ical composition:  Chromium,  1.50  percent.;  nickel,  3.50  per 
cent.;  carbon,  0.25  per  cent.;  manganese,  0.40  per  cent.; 
silicon,  0.25  per  cent;  phosphorus,  0.025  per  cent.;  sulfur, 
0.03  per  cent. 

In  the  annealed  state  this  shows  the  following  physical 
characteristics:  Tensile  strength,  120,000  pounds  per  square 
inch;  elastic  limit,  105,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  elonga- 
tion in  2  inches,  20  per  cent.;  reduction  of  area,  58  per  cent. 

When  properly  heat-treated,  that  is  quenched  in  oil  and 
drawn,  these  characteristics  become:  Tensile  strength,  202,- 
000  pounds  per  square  inch;  elastic  limit,  180,000  pounds  per 
square  inch;  elongation  in  2  inches,  12  percent.;  reduction  of 
area,  34  per  cent. 

Effects  of  Alloying  Materials 

Chromium  produces  a  mineral  hardness  in  steel,  and  steels 
containing  this  alloy  are  difficult  to  forge,  but  if  the  tempera- 
ture is  kept  above  2,200  degrees  R,  or  a  bright  yellow,  and 
never  allowed  to  fall  below  this  it  can  be  forged  success- 
fully. 

This  would  require  frequent  reheating,  as  the  melting-point 


DROP-FORGING    DIES,    THEIR    DESIGN,     ETC.  137 

is  2,  $00  degrees  F.,  and  it  cannot  reach  this  temperature.  With 
this  steel  it  is  best  to  make  the  dies  with  shorter  steps  between 
the  different  pairs  than  for  ordinary  carbon-steels. 

Steels  containing  nickel  are  more  easily  forged,  but  they 
must  be  handled  carefully,  owing  to  its  tendency  to  produce 
fissures. 

The  vanadium  steels  are  more  easily  forged  than  either  of 
these,  and  if  due  care  is  taken  to  increase  the  heat  gradually  at 
first — that  is,  this  steel  should  not  be  plunged  into  the  heat  all 
at  once — no  trouble  will  be  experienced  afterward. 

Silicon  in  small  percentages  does  not  affect  the  forgeability 
of  steel,  but  in  large  amount  it  gives  steel  a  fibrous  grain,  and 
is  therefore  used  principally  for  springs.  But  in  the  last  few 
years  this  steel  has  been  forged  into  gear  blanks  to  quite  an 
extent.  In  this  case  the  blanks  should  be  made  in  the  form 
of  forged  rolls,  and  not  cut  from  bars,  in  order  to  avoid  the 
fibrous  structure. 

The  aluminum,  tungsten,  titanium,  manganese  and  other 
alloyed  steels  are  not  used  to  any  extent  for  forgings,  as  those 
before  mentioned  show  superior  qualities,  and  some  of  the  last 
named  are  much  higher  in  price. 

Hydraulic  Press  Gives  Best  Results 

The  inferior  quality  of  many  die-forgings  is  undoubtedly 
due  to  the  drop-hammer  process,  as  this  has  a  tendency  to 
produce  only  a  bruising  effect,  owing  to  the  top  die  descending 
at  a  high  rate  of  speed  and  delivering  a  light  blow  which  has 
no  penetration.  The  hydraulic  press,  on  the  other  hand,  pro- 
duces forgings  of  a  far  superior  quality,  because  it  slowly 
squeezes  the  metal  into  the  shape  of  the  dies,  thus  allowing  it 
more  time  to  flow  into  place  and  assume  its  new  shape,  and 
therefore  making  it  more  uniform  in  quality  with  a  great  deal 
lower  degree  of  internal  strains.  To  remove  the  internal 
strains  caused  by  working  the  metal,  all  forgings,  no  matter 
how  they  are  made,  should  be  annealed  before  using,  as  the 
shocks  to  which  the  forging  may  be  submitted  will  concentrate 
at  the  point  where  these  internal  strains  are  the  strongest, 


138  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

causing  it  to  break  at  that  point.     The  results  are  very  similar 
to  the  machinist  notching  a  bar  in  order  to  break  it  off. 

Heating  Too  Suddenly 

Many  poor  forgings  are  also  turned  out  by  raising  the 
temperature  of  the  metal  too  suddenly.  Certain  molecular 
changes  take  place  in  the  heating  of  all  steels,  and  of  the  alloy 
steels  in  particular,  which  are  liable  to  cause  fissures  in  the  core 
of  the  metal,  and  these  may  not  show  in  the  finished  product, 
as  they  do  not  always  break  through  the  skin  or  outer  shell 
of  the  forging.  Thus,  by  heating  suddenly,  the  outer  shell 
becomes  red  before  the  core  has  had  an  opportunity  to  absorb 
any  heat  and  the  outer  shell  expands,  causing  great  strains  on 
the  core  of  the  piec*e. 

In  the  case  of  a  high  percentage  of  nickel  these  fissures 
become  more  pronounced  than  with  the  other  alloys. 

At  a  temperature  of  about  600  degrees  F.,  or  a  bright  blue, 
most  steels  lose  their  ductility  and  are  not  fitted  to  resist 
strains  imposed  upon  them  by  the  differential  expansion  of  an 
unevenly  heated  metal.  Therefore  the  rise  in  temperature 
from  the  normal  to  600  degrees  should  be  a  gradual  one,  but 
after  this  it  may  be  brought  up  to  the  forging  heat  as  quickly 
as  is  desired. 


CHAPTER   IV 

DROP-FORGING  AND  HARDENING  PLANTS! DESIGNS,  FUNDA- 
MENTAL CONDITIONS,  AND  EQUIPMENT  INVOLVED  IN  THEIR 
ATTAINMENT 

The  Drop-Forge  and  Hardening  Plant 

THE  design  and  equipment  of  the  drop-forge  shop  and  the 
hardening  plant,  are  subjects  frequently  entirely  neglected  in 
the  first  design,  and  almost  always  slighted  in  the  erection  of  the 
modern  manufacturing  plant.  This  neglect  is  largely  due  to 
conservatism,  but  at  the  same  time  it  cannot  be  denied  that  in 
few  places  will  careful  design  or  a  small  outlay  of  money  show 
greater  satisfactory  results  in  finished  metal  parts,  or  quicker 
returns  from  the  amount  of  money  paid  out.  To  install  a 
finely  and  expensively  equipped  tool  and  die  department,  and 
then  a  hardening  department  consisting  only  of  a  few  coal  and 
gas  fires  and  tubs  of  fresh  water,  shows  lack  of  proper  thought 
and  is  inconsistent.  In  this  chapter  the  object  is  to  illustrate 
and  describe  types  of  each  department,  showing  what  consti- 
tutes the  best  modern  practise,  together  with  much  detail 
matter  bearing  on  such  departments  in  general. 

Drop-Forge  and  Hardening  Departments  Under  One  Roof 

These  two  departments,  being  of  the  same  general  type, 
should  preferably  be  combined  under  one  roof.  In  a  building 
for  this  purpose,  ventilation  is  of  greater  importance  than 
light.  A  good  form  of  building  is  from  60  to  70  feet  high 
under  the  trusses,  with  roof  pitched  not  less  than  30  degrees, 
and  a  ventilating-monitor  of  at  least  1 5  feet  wide  extending 
the  entire  length  of  the  building.  Windows  throughout 
should  be  of  the  American  type,  with  sliding-sashes. 

In  the  hardening-room,  all  windows  should  be  protected 

139 


140  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

from  excessive  light  by  slant  shutters,  the  slats  being  set  at  4  5 
degrees  and  about  3  inches  apart,  adjustable  for  about  1  foot 
at  the  top.  This  arrangement  gives  a  subdued  light,  allowing 
the  hardener  to  distinguish  his  colors  with  a  greater  degree  of 
accuracy.  The  slight  adjustment  at  the  top  is  sufficient  to 
keep  the  interior  bright  and  evenly  lighted,  regardless  of  the 
outside  conditions.  One  16-candle-power  light,  hung  7  feet 
from  the  floor,  should  be  provided  for  every  150  square  feet  of 
floor-space  in  this  department. 

The  engraving,  Fig.  148,  shows  the  plan  of  such  a  building 
as  primarily  laid  out  as  part  of  a  large  manufacturing  plant. 
The  equipment  shown  in  Fig.  148  is  laid  out  on  the  basis  of 
minimum  clearance  desirable  in  the  forge-shop. 

Location  of  Die-Sinking  Department 

The  die-sinking  and  inspecting  departments  are  set  at  the 
end  of  the  building,  both  to  insure  better  light,  and  to  be  far- 
ther away  from  the  jar  of  the  larger  drop-hammers.  The  jar 
in  a  department  so  located  is  sufficient  to  materially  affect  the 
quality  of  the  work,  provided  the  partitions  are  of  brick  and 
extend  well  below  the  floor-line.  The  rough  stock  for  dies 
is  to  be  brought  in  at  the  door  near  the  end  of  the  build- 
ing, planed  up  dovetailed — to  fit  the  die-blocks — in  ten-foot 
lengths,  and  then  rough-sawed  to  size  desired  in  a  power- 
hack  saw.  The  finished  dies  are  to  be  stored  in  the  fireproof 
vault  assigned  to  them,  on  racks  with  shelves  6  inches 
wide.  Thirty-inch  passage  ways,  being  sufficiently  wide  to 
admit  trucks,  are  allowed  between  the  racks. 

Board,  Steam,  Helve,  Trip,  and  Drop  Hammers 

In  the  modern-sized  shop,  at  least,  it  is  best  policy  to  install 
comparatively  large  drop-hammers,  on  account  of  their  broader 
range  of  utility.  The  general  practise  is  to  install  board-ham- 
mers no  size  smaller  than  400  pounds,  and  to  install  steam- 
drops  where  the  work  requires  sizes  larger  than  1,000  pounds. 
The  steam-drops  in  large  sizes  have  the  advantage  of  being 
able  to  break  down  their  own  work,  but  on  small  parts  the 


DROP-FORGING   AND    HARDENING    PLANTS 


141 


142  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 

experience  has  been  that  many  forgings  are  spoiled  by  catch- 
ing in  the  quick  stroke. 

In  the  illustration,  the  larger  board-drops  have  been  set  in 
conjunction  with  a  helve-hammer,  so  arranged  that  it  may 
break  down  for  two  of  them.  This  result  may  be  obtained 
equally  well  by  setting  the  helve-hammer  between  two  drops 
and  faced  the  same  way,  but  with  the  anvil-block  set  about  3 
feet  in  front  of  the  base-line  of  the  drop-hammers,  thus  per- 
mitting the  blacksmith  to  swing  his  stock  directly  from  one 
to  the  other. 

The  largest  hammers  are  set  nearest  the  main  crossing  or 
passageways,  to  make  possible  less  travel  for  the  larger  stock 
and  the  finished  product.  The  forgings  are,  of  course,  hot 
trimmed  in  the  trimming  presses  and  by  sprue  cutters  set 
in  conjunction  with  each  hammer,  but  before  going  to  the 
machine-shop  they  are  accurately  trimmed  to  the  size  required 
for  their  reception  into  their  various  jigs  and  fixtures,  in  the 
presses  of  the  cold  trimming  department. 

The  two  trip-hammers  are  used  in  conjunction  with  tool- 
dressing  and  general  work.  The  two  blacksmith-forges  near 
the  die-sinking  department  are  used  for  general  work  during 
the  day,  and  for  night  and  overtime  work  when  the  main  shop 
is  not  running.  They  are  blown  from  an  overhead  blower, 
motor-driven,  and  are  hung  from  the  trusses,  their  exhausts 
being  taken  out  through  the  roof.  With  the  exception  of 
these  two  fires  the  use  of  fuel-oil  is  universal  throughout  the 
entire  shop.  This  subject  will  be  further  discussed  later. 
Both  the  forge  and  hardening  departments  should  be  in  gen- 
eral charge  of  one  man  whose  office  is  centrally  located  between 
them,  but  each  should  have  a  separate  subforeman. 

Layout  of  Hardening  Department 

The  general  layout  of  the  hardening  department  is  self- 
explanatory,  but  the  details  may  require  explanation.  In  front 
of  the  small  open  fires,  lead  pots,  etc.,  with  43  inches  clear 
space,  is  set  a  row  of  brine  and  whale-oil  tanks,  alternating, 
one  of  each  kind  being  sufficient  for  two  fires. 


DROP- FORGING   AND    HARDENING    PLANTS 


143 


These  regular  brine-tanks  are  built  of  2  J^ -inch  Southern 
pine,  and  elliptical  in  shape,  being  30  inches  wide,  4  feet 
long,  and  30  inches  deep,  with  a  capacity  of  120  gallons.  The 
brine  is  circulated  through  these  tanks,  entering  at  the  bottom 
through  a  1^-inch  brass  pipe  controlled  by  a  gate- valve,  and 
overflowing  at  the  top  through  a  4-inch  cast-iron 'soil-pipe. 
The  required  rate  of  circulation  for  each  tank,  to  keep  the 
brine  sufficiently  cool  for  the  best  results  in  hardening,  is  50 
gallons  per  minute. 

Centrally  located  in  front  of  the  No.  2  case-hardening 
furnace  is  a  brine-tank  of  the  same  size  as  described  above,  a 


FIG.  149. — Brine-tank. 

vertical  section  of  which  tank  is  shown  in  Fig.  149.  Brine  is 
admitted  through  the  4-inch  brass  pipe  in  the  center  of  the 
tank.  This  pipe  extends  within  6  inches  of  the  brine-level, 
and  is  readily  removable  by  hand,  being  loosely  screwed  into 
the  coupling  at  the  bottom.  The  brine  entering  through  this 
pipe  under  pressure,  forms  a  dome  above  the  main  level, 
which  dome  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  dipping  the  face  of  the 
drop-hammer  dies,  after  which  the  dies  are  reheated  slightly 
and  plunged  all  over.  By  using  this  method  of  dipping  the 
face,  every  corner  and  crevice  of  the  die  is  struck  at  once, 
thereby  preventing  unequal  cooling  and  cracking.  As  the 


144 


DROP- FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


inlet  pipe  is  readily  removable,  the  utility  of  the  tank  as 
applied  to  general  hardening  is  in  no  way  limited.  One  hun- 
dred and  fifty  gallons  per  minute  should  be  temporarily  avail- 
able for  this  tank.  A  S-inch  cast-iron  soil-pipe  takes  care  of 
the  overflow. 

A  4-foot  diameter  whale-oil  tank,  one  regular  brine-tank, 
and  a  portable  fresh-water  tank  complete  the  equipment  re- 
quired for  the  case-hardening  furnaces.  These  tanks  are 
served  by  a  crane.  The  portable  fresh-water  tank  is  30  inches 
diameter  by  30  inches  deep,  and  when  not  elsewhere  in  use  is 
set  in  a  concreted  depression  in  the  floor,  4  feet  diameter  by 

6  inches  deep,  and  this  depres- 
sion is  drained  through  a  screen 
through  a  4-inch  tile  drain. 
The  chief  use  of  this  tank  is 
for  water-marking  screws  and 
other  small  parts.  The  tank 
is  drained  at  the  bottom 
through  a  2-inch  spigot.  A 
large  part  of  the  black  bone 
used  is  caught  by  the  screen  in 
the  depression,  from  which  it 
may  be  readily  shoveled  out. 
Even  with  this  precaution, 
however,  it  is  desirable  that  the  drain  run  with  as  steep  a  pitch 
as  possible  direct  to  the  catch-basin,  both  to  prevent  stoppage 
and  to  make  easy  the  cleaning  out,  should  stoppage  occur. 
The  drain  will  surely  give  trouble  if  laid  with  many  turns. 
On  opposite  sides  of  this  tank  are  lugs  and  hooks  to  re- 
ceive poles  by  which  two  men  carry  the  tank  about  the  job, 
wherever  its  use  is  required. 

In  front  of  the  open  fires  is  a  special  brine-tank  used  for 
hardening  cutters,  reamers,  etc.  A  section  of  this  special  tank 
is  shown  in  Fig.  150.  The  brine  is  admitted  at  the  bottom 
through  a  2-inch  brass  inlet-pipe,  and  spouts  through  a  large 
number  of  ^-inch  holes  drilled  in  the  12-inch  cast-iron  inner 
tank.  The  combined  areas  of  these  holes  is  designed  to  be 


IDJ2CJJUW 

JPPLY     HI 


FIG.  150. — Special  brine-tank. 


DROP-FORGING   AND    HARDENING    PLANTS 


145 


about  20  per  cent,  in  excess  of  the  area  of  the  inlet-pipe.  A 
4-inch  cast-iron  soil-pipe  takes  care  of  the  overflow.  The 
advantage  claimed  for  this  tank  is  that  the  brine,  spurting 
through  the  small  holes  on  all  sides,  strikes  all  the  teeth  or 
flutes  of  the  cutter  or  reamer  at  the  same  time,  thus  tending  to 
prevent  cracking. 

A  5-inch  by  4-inch  centrifugal  circulating  pump,  set  in  the 
pit  in  the  corner  of  the  building  and  driven  by  a  15-horse- 
power  motor,  supplies  the  brine  system.  The  required 
pressure  which  must  be  kept  on  this  system  to  secure  good 


^SPECIAL  END 
CASTING 


BURNER 


FIG.  151. — Refitted  blast-forge  for  oil  fuel. 

efficiency  is  15  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  pump  is  set 
sufficiently  low  to  be  always  primed  from  the  storage-tank 
built  in  the  ground  outside  the  building.  That  brine  may 
be  kept  sufficiently  cool  in  the  summer  months,  this  storage- 
tank  must  have  a  capacity  equal  to  a  fifteen-minute  supply  for 
the  entire  system  when  all  tanks  are  in  operation  at  full 
capacity.  The  brine  overflow  from  all  serve-tanks  is  returned 
by  gravity  to  the  storage-tank  through  the  open  drain  shown 
clearly  in  Fig.  148. 

The  regular  oil-tanks  are  20  inches  diameter  by  2  f  ,et  deep 
inside,  but  the  shell  is  made  30  inches  high  to  bring  their 
tops  at  the  same  level  as  the  brine-tanks.  The  cooling  appar- 


146 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


atus  consists  of  a  coil  of  )^-inch  brass-pipe  through  which 
a  part  of  the  factory  service  water  is  circulated.  The  large 
4-foot  oil-tank  is  of  the  same  depth  and  is  cooled  through  a 
1-inch  brass  coil.  It  is  not  necessary  to  keep  the  oil  as  cool 
as  the  brine.  A  2-inch  by  3-inch  belt-driven  centrifugal 
pump  supplies  the  circulating  water.  Certain  concerns  cool 
their  oil  by  circulating  it  through  a  series  of  trombone  coils 
placed  in  the  monitor  of  the  hardening-room,  but  the  practise 
has  never  appealed  to  the  best  experts.  The  expense  neces- 
sary is  comparatively  great,  the  oil  makes  hard  work  for  the 


DAMPEfi) 


B_URNE-«t 


FIG.  152. — Refitted  lead-pot  furnace  for  oil  fuel. 

pump,  and  then  the  main  heat  from  the  building  must  pass 
out  around  these  coils  if  so  placed. 

Advantages  of  Oil  Fuel 

Having  in  a  general  way  described  the  equipment  of  each 
department,  let  us  return  to  the  question  of  fuel.  The  first 
considerations  controlling  the  efficiency  of  such  departments 
are  of  course  the  case  of  regulation  and  heating  capacity  of 
their  fires.  It  is  in  this  regard,  even  more  than  in  the  reduc- 
tion of  fuel  costs,  that  the  greatest  reduction  and  economy  is 
attained  by  the  use  of  fuel-oil.  The  reasons  are  at  once  clear. 
The  blacksmith's  time  may  be  entirely  given  to  his  work  in 
hand,  since  once  the  valves  are  properly  adjusted  they  require 


DROP-FORGING    AND    HARDENING    PLANTS 


147 


little  or  no  attention,  and  an  even  heat  is  positively  assured. 
No  labor  is  required  to  bring  coal  or  take  ashes  away  from  the 
forge,  and  when  no  work  is  being  done  no  fuel  is  required. 
If  the  flame  is  run  a  little  on  the  yellow  there  is  absolutely  no 
scale.  The  cleanliness  of  the  fire  renders  it  especially  adapted 
to  such  work  as  welding,  etc.  For  the  departments  under  dis- 
cussion, the  best  practise  is  a  air-pressure  system  to  those  using 
steam,  the  preference  being  due  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  these 
departments  are  generally  somewhat  isolated  from  the  source 
of  steam-supply.  Of  the  air-pressure  systems,  those  using  the 


1  AIR 


FIG.  153. — Refitted  lead-pot  furnace  for  oil  fuel. 

lowest  pressure  consistent  with  the  best  efficiency  are  evidently 
the  most  desirable.  Excellent  systems  are  now  on  the  market, 
using  from  8  to  10  ounces  pressure.  These  systems  require, 
however,  furnaces  of  rather  special  design,  the  most  efficient 
having  ample  combustion  of  mixing  chambers  in  which  the 
oil-spray  is  combined  with  a  primary  air-supply  and  volatilized 
before  being  admitted  to  the  main  chamber,  where  the  stock 
is  to  be  heated.  In  a  plant  where  the  installation  is  to  be 
entirely  of  new  forges,  a  carefully  selected  system  of  this  type 
is  ideal.  In  many  cases,  however,  it  may  not  be  thought 
desirable  to  entirely  discard  such  equipment  of  coal-burning 
forges  as  may  be  on  hand.  Where  such  is  the  case  but  small 
outlay  is  required  to  make  the  necessary  alterations  to  permit 


148 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 


them  being  used  in  conjunction  with  a  moderately  low-pres- 
sure system.  By  this  I  mean  a  pressure  of  about  2  pounds 
per  square  inch,  which  can,  of  course,  be  readily  discharged 
by  the  ordinary  "high-pressure  blower,"  without  requiring  the 
installation  of  any  air-compressor,  as  is  of  course  necessary 
with  a  system  using  from  IS  to  18  pounds  pressure. 

Refitted  Coal- Forges  and  Furnaces  for  Fuel-Oil 

In  fitting  coal-forges  and  furnaces  to  use  fuel-oil,   it  is 
desirable,  as  far  as  possible,  to  give  the  spray  a  whirling  motion 


^•V*~T--";¥;^^ 


FIG.  154. — Refitted  Brown  &  Sharpe  case-hardening  furnace  for 

oil  fuel. 

which  tends  to  more  completely  vaporize  the  oil,  and  also 
makes  a  much  less  noisy  flame  than  is  the  case  where  the  oil 
strikes  against  flat  surfaces.  In  the  latter  case,  where  the  oil 
strikes  flat  against  the  white  hot  tile,  it  causes  what  appears  to 
be  a  series  of  rapid  explosions,  sufficiently  loud  in  a  large  shop 
to  be  a  source  of  annoyance. 

Fig.  151  illustrates  a  method  of  refitting  a  common  blast- 
forge.  Common  arched  firebrick  and  skewbacks  are  used,  and 
a  few  special  tiles  which  may  be  readily  ground  to  form  on  the 


DROP-FORGING   AND    HARDENING    PLANTS 


149 


common  grindstone.  Common  red  brick  may  be  used  as 
backing.  A  special  casting  is  required,  the  end  of  which 
may  be  made  to  bolt  onto  the  original  side-castings.  In  very 
large  sizes  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  install  a  burner  at  each 
end  of  the  forge,  which  arrangement  is  very  satisfactory,  and 
gives  an  intense  heat  at  the  center  of  the  fire-box. 

Figs.  152  and  153  show  horizontal  and  vertical  sections  of 
the  common  form  of  lead-pot  furnace  refitted.  Either  wedge 
or  cupola  brick  may  be  used.  Two  courses  from  the  bottom 
tile,  and  forming  the  top  of  the  mixing  chamber,  is 'a  tile 


FIG.    155. — Refitted  Brown  &  Sharpe  case-hardening  furnace  for 

oil  fuel. 

through  which  are  drilled,  at  an  angle,  six  1  J/2-inch  holes.  For 
this  operation  a  common  star-drill  may,  with  care,  be  used. 
In  the  top  two  [courses,  four  bricks  each  are  omitted  at  45 
degrees  for  vents.  As  before,  the  firebrick  is  backed  up  with 
common  red  brick. 

Figs.  154  and  155  show  cross-sections  and  longitudinal 
sections  of  a  refitted  No.  2  Brown  &  Sharpe  case-hardening 
furnace.  In  this  case  the  coal-gages  are  left  in  place  and 
simply  paved  with  fire-brick  laid  on  their  sides.  A  3-inch  fire 


150  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

tile,  ground  to  form  shown,  is  centrally  located  in  the  firebox 
to  act  as  a  baffle.  If  the  furnace  is  to  be  set  up  new  for  use  as 
fuel-oil,  it  is  desirable  that  the  bridge-wall  be  sloped  as  shown, 
to  leave  an  opening  at  the  back  of  2  inches  over  the  wall,  and 
4  inches  at  the  front.  The  reason  for  the  construction  is  to 
counteract  the  tendency  of  the  heat  to  drive  to  the  back  of  the 
oven.  This  tendency  exists,  but  it  is  not  marked,  that  in  cases 
where  the  furnace  is  already  set  up  it  hardly  pays  to  rebuild 
the  bridge-wall.  A  special  fire-door  casting,  designed  to  take 
the  burner,  must  take  the  place  of  the  former  vertical  sliding- 
door.  These  few  examples  will  give  the  reader  a  general  idea 
of  the  changes  necessary  to  remodel  an  installation  of  coal 
furnaces. 

Arrangement  of  Piping 

In  the  two  departments  under  discussion,  the  oil  is  sup- 
plied to  all  furnaces  through  a  1^-inch  wrought-iron  pipe- 
main,  making  a  complete  closed  loop  around  each  department 
in  order  to  keep  the  pressure  even.  A  1-inch  steam-pipe 
must  be  laid  with  it  to  keep  the  oil  from  congealing  in  cold 
weather.  These  two  pipes  should  be  laid  preferably  in  the 
ground  itself  and  not  in  a  trench,  and  should  never  be  laid 
above  the  floor,  the  reason  being  that  the  gases  from  all  petro- 
leum distillates  are  heavier  than  air,  and  will  run  to  the  low 
parts  of  the  floor  or  the  trench.  These  gases,  though  not 
themselves  explosive,  may  become  so  if  combined  with  a 
larger  proportion  of  air. 

The  air-piping  should  be  suspended  overhead  with  outlets 
looking  down  into  the  risers  from  the  oil-mains.  The  speed 
of  the  air  in  these  pipes  should  not  exceed  1 5  feet  per  second 
in  the  first  installation,  which  will  permit  of  about  30  per 
cent,  increase,  due  to  growth,  without  the  speed  becoming 
excessive.  A  rule-of-thumb  measurement  sometimes  used  is 
that  the  area  of  the  air-pipe  shall  equal  six  times  the  area  of 
the  jet,  but  the  foregoing  method  is  much  safer  for  the  com- 
putation. To  facilitate  calculations,  the  following  notes  will 
prove  of  interest. 

At  2  pounds  pressure  there  will  be  required  at  the  blower 


DROP-FORGING   AND    HARDENING    PLANTS 

roughly  about  1,000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  per  gallon  of 
oil-burner. 

Blast  furnaces  burn  per  day  of  ten  hours  approximately 
0. 1 5  gallon  of  oil  per  square  inch  of  horizontal  area  of  fire- 
box. 

Open  fires  for  hardening,  as  above,  0.02S  gallon. 

Lead  pots,  oil-tempering,  case-hardening  and  annealing 
furnaces,  0.0$  gallon. 


, 
FIG.  156. — Single  opening  forge  for  end  heating. 

About  10  horse-power  is  required  to  transmit  1,000  cubic 
feet  of  free  air  against  a  2  pounds  pressure. 

From  the  foregoing,  a  close  estimate  of  the  size  of  the 
required  blower  and  the  horse-power  needed  to  drive  it  may 
be  obtained.  Included  in  this  estimate  must  be  a  figure  on 
the  amount  of  air  required  to  blow  the  drop-hammer  dies. 
The  blow-pipes  required  are  one  i^-inch  pipe  with  flattened 
nozzle  for  each  small  drop  and  trip-hammer,  and  two  of  the 
same  size  for  the  larger  drop-hammers.  As  the  use  of  these 
blow-pipes  is  rather  intermittent,  this  figure  is  generally  in  the 


152 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


nature  of  an  off-hand  estimate,  based  on  the  judgment  of  the 
engineer. 

Finishing  Department 

In  the  finishing  department  the  following  recommenda- 
tions should  be  followed,  in  order  that  the  best  results  both 
as  to  economic  and  efficient  production  and  safety  and  content- 
ment of  the  help  may  attain. 

Emery  dust  should  be  exhausted  fully  from  the  grinding 
department,  as  such  dust  is  detrimental  to  health  and  effi- 


FIG.  157. — Double  opening  forge  for  center  heating. 

ciency,  the  floors  of  the  shops  and  similar  departments  should 
be  covered  with  iron  plates,  which  promote  cleanliness,  both 
for  men  and  machinery.  In  a  properly  equipped  and  operated 
forge-shop,  individual  chimneys  for  each  fire  and  usual  facil- 
ties  of  ventilation  by  windows  and  by  overhead  fan  lights, 
clean,  fresh  air  should  be  drawn  in  from  a  point  high  above 
the  roof  by  powerful  fans  and  distributed  through  each  forge- 
building  until  it  descends  over  each  man's  head,  through  a 
flexible  pipe  under  his  control,  thus  assuring  an  abundance  of 


DROP-FORGING   AND    HARDENING    PLANTS 


153 


Burner 


Front  Elevation 

FIG.  158. — Double  opening  forge. 


FIG.    160. — Double    opening 
forge. 


i     t 


Side  Elevation 

FIG.   159. — Double  opening 
forge. 


Plan  of  Brickwork, 
around  Vent. 


it 


Opening  bricked  up 
to  lult  Work 


OD  Ede« 


FIG.  161. — Double  opening 
forge. 


154 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


cool,  pure  air.  In  one  forge,  say  where  there  are  over  thirty 
furnaces,  running  under  forced  blast,  it  will  be  found,  if  the 
above  is  carried  out,  that  even  in  hot  weather  the  cooling 
system  will  cause  the  men  to  work  steadily,  the  output  will  be 
kept  up,  and  the  shop  will  not  be  compelled  to  shut  down  on 
extremely  warm  days,  as  is  usually  the  case.  This  system  will 
please  both  the  men  and  the  owners. 

While  the  above  conditions  outlined  are  essential  to  any 
first-class  drop-forge  shop,  they  are  as  nothing  compared  with 


FIG.  162. — Adjustable  top-slot  oil-forge  furnace. 

the  fact  of  just  and  fair  treatment  of  help.  Wages  should  be 
advanced  voluntarily,  and  not  when  a  general  demand  is  made 
for  advanced  pay.  Never  make  a  general  reduction  of  pay. 
Those  who  know  factory  conditions  from  the  ground  up  will 
agree  that  the  piece-work  rates  should  never  be  cut  until  com- 
petition makes  it  absolutely  necessary. 

Oil-Burning  Forges  and  Heaters 

In  the  steady  advance  in  the  improvement  of  machinery 
and  apparatus  that  has  been  going  on  for  years,  the  old  coal 


DROP-FORGING    AND    HARDENING    PLANTS 


155 


or  coke  fired  blacksmith's  forge  with  its  accompanying  dirt, 
smoke,  gases,  and  foul  odors,  and  its  handworked  bellows,  has 
given  way  to  furnace  forges  that  are  practically  as  clean  as  the 
machines  in  the  machine-shop. 

In  making  the  much-needed  improvements  the  fuel  has 
been  changed,  and  the  coal,  with  its  dirt,  smoke,  etc.,  has  been 
abolished  by  substituting  gases  of  different  kinds  and  oil  in  its 


FIG.  163. — End-heating  forge  furnace. 

place.  As  well  as  making  the  forges  clean  and  pleasant  to 
operate,  the  change  has  made  a  considerable  reduction  in  the 
fuel  bills.  Fuel-oil,  which  is  the  product  used  in  the  forges 
herein  described,  has  proved  itself  to  be  one  of  the  cheapest 
fuels,  and  has  thus  supplanted  the  coal-fired  forge  in  many 
places. 

These  styles  of  forges  and  furnaces  have  another  advantage 
over  the  coal-fired  forge,  which  is  that  they  can  be  heated  to 


156 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


any  desired  temperature,  and  that  temperature  maintained  per- 
manently by  setting  the  valves  which  admit  the  oil  and  air  to 
the  burner.  This  is  a  very  desirable  feature  of  the  oil  or  gas 
fired  forges,  and  one  that  could  not  be  accomplished  with  the 
old  forge. 

Single  and  Double  Opening  Forge  Furnaces 

In  Figs.  156  and  157  are  shown  two  styles  of  the  most 
common  type  of  forge-furnaces,  one  of  which  has  the  opening 
on  one  side  only,  and  is  used  for  heating  small  pieces,  or  the 
ends  of  larger  ones.  The  other  has  an  opening  on  both  sides, 
opposite  each  other,  so  that  long  bars  can  be  shoved  in  through 


FIG.  164. — Method  of  installing  apparatus. 

and  heated  in  the  middle.  This  opening  is  left  5  inches  high 
on  this  size  of  furnace  and  it  can  then  be  bricked  up  to  make 
the  opening  small  enough  to  suit  the  work.  Burners  are 
located  on  each  end  of  th'ese  forges,  so  that  the  chamber  will 
have  a  uniform  heat  its  entire  length. 

A  double  steel-plate  is  located  above  the  opening  to  protect 
the  operator  from  the  heat  of  the  furnace,  and  in  conjunction 
with  this  an  air-blast  is  sent  through  the  pipe  and  comes  up 
through  the  floor  and  runs  along  the  entire  front  of  the  furnace 
immediately  below  the  opening.  This  air-blast  drives  the  heat 
which  might  come  through  the  opening  up  the  back  of  the 
steel-plate,  so  that  the  operator  can  work  in  comfort. 

The  details  of  the  construction  of  the  double-opening 
forge  are  shown  in  Figs.  158  to  161.  The  single-opening 


DROP-FORGING   AND    HARDENING    PLANTS  157 

forge  is  practically  of  the  same  construction,  with  the  exception 
that  the  one  opening  is  closed  up  with  fire-brick  and  forms 
the  back  of  the  furnace,  while  the  sheet-metal  heat-protector 
and  air-blast  are  removed  from  that  side  of  the  furnace. 

Top-Slot  and  End-Heating  Forges 

For  work  which  cannot  be  readily  handled  in  the  above 
forges  an  adjustable  top-slot  furnace,  like  the  one  shown  in 
Fig.  162,  is  manufactured.  An  adjustable  clamp  for  holding 


FIG.  165,, — Tool-dressing  forge-furnace. 

the  brick  which  covers  the  opening  is  furnished  with  this 
forge,  and  the  opening  can  be  made  any  size  suitable  for  the 
work.  As  will  be  seen,  these  forges  are  simple  in  construc- 
tion, easy  of  control,  taking  practically  none  of  the  operator's 
time  for  that  part  of  the  work,  and  are  made  so  that  nearly  any 
kind,  size,  or  shape  of  piece  may  be  handled. 

In  Fig.  163  is  shown  an  end-heating  furnace  fitted  with  a 
door  which  can  be  raised  or  lowered  to  open  or  close  the  furnace. 


158  DROP- FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 

Installation  of  Forges 

In  Fig.  164  is  shown  the  methods  of  installing  these  fur- 
naces with  their  apparatus  for  oil  and  air.  As  will  be  seen,  the 
two  pipes  are  laid  under  the  floor,  one  to  deliver  the  oil  and 
the  other  the  air-blast,  and  the  furnaces  connected  up  to  these. 


FIG.  166. — Wire-brazing  furnace. 

While  this  is  the  best  method,  when  conditions  are  such  as  to 
make  it  desirable,  these  pipes  should  be  carried  to  the  ceiling 
instead  of  under  the  floor.  Gages,  such  as  natural-gas,  coal- 
gas,  water-gas,  producer-gas,  etc.,  can  be  used  in  these  same 
forges  as  readily  as  oil  by  changing  the  burners  to  those  that 
are  suitable. 

The  most  important  thing  is  to  see  that  they  are  properly 
installed,  so  that  the  air  and  fuel  pressures  be  steady,  uniform 


DROP-FORGING   AND    HARDENING    PLANTS 


159 


and  voluminous  enough  to  give  the  forges  their  proper  tem- 
perature and  maintain  it  at  the  desired  point.  This,  of  course, 
varies  with  the  kinds  of  material  to  be  heated. 

Where  accurate  temperature  control  is  not  necessary,  and 
pressure  under  14  ounces  will  suffice,  the  steel  fan  or  positive 
blower,  that  will  give  the  proper  volume,  will  maintain  a  uni- 
form pressure.  Where  the  pressures  from  2  to  $  pounds  are 


FIG.  167. — Tube-brazing  furnace. 

required,  the  positive  blower  is  used,  and  when  an  air-pres- 
sure above  this  is  necessary  the  compressed-air  plant  will  be 
needed.  In  some  cases  good  dry  steam  will  give  better  results 
and  effect  a  saving  in  fuel.  The  quantity  of  fuel  required 
varies  with  the  temperature,  material  treated,  and  speed  at 
which  it  is  handled,  but  the  fuel-pressure  must  always  be 
uniform.  For  the  oil  5  pounds  pressure  is  sufficient. 


160 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


Burners 

The  burner  to  be  used  is  an  important  factor  in  the  eco- 
nomical production  of  work  with  these  forges,  and  therefore 
it  is  not  practicable  to  have  one  burner  that  will  do  all  kinds  of 
work.  Whether  high  or  low  pressure  air  or  steam  is  to  be 
used  for  the  blast,  makes  a  difference  in  the  kind  of  burner 


FIG.  168. — Gas-fired  ladle-heater. 

that  should  be  used  to  get  the  greatest  efficiency  with  the 
minimum  of  fuel  consumption,  as  well  as  the  temperature  that 
it  is  necessary  to  maintain  in  the  forge,  and  the  nature  of  the 
work  that  is  to  be  done. 

By  Fig.  165  is  shown  a  tool-dressing  forge-furnace  that  has 
been  designed  especially  for  shaping  up  lathe  or  planer  tools 
or  pieces  of  a  like  character  and  size,  whether  they  be  made  of 
high  speed  or  carbon  steels. 


DROP-FORGING   AND    HARDENING    PLANTS 


161 


Brazing  Furnaces 

A  fine  line  of  brazing  furnaces  is  of  the  type  shown  in 
Figs.  166  and  167.  Fig.  166  shows  the  wire-brazing  fur- 
nace and  the  crank  to  the  right  operates  a  clamp  that  holds 
one  wire.  A  clamp  is  also  located  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  furnace,  so  that  the  two  wires  can  be  held  in  perfect 
alignment  if  desired,  or  the  other  wire  can  be  held  by  the 


Ttobtaw 


FIG.  169. — Details  of  gas-fired  ladle-heater. 

operator.  A  trolley-wire  can  be  brazed  every  three  minutes 
with  this  style  of  furnace,  the  necessary  heat  coming  out 
through  a  hole  in  the  top  of  the  furnace. 

The  tube-brazing  furnace  shown  in  Fig.  167  is  designed 
for  brazing  brass,  copper,  or  steel  tubes.  The  burner  dis- 
charges a  ribbon  of  clear  hot  flame  from  the  top,  down  upon 
the  tube,  with  an  inclination  toward  the  rear;  the  place  to  be 
brazed  being  near  the  front  in  full  view  of  the  operator.  The 


162  DROP- FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

bottom  of  the  chamber  may  be  raised  or  lowered  to  accom- 
modate different  sized  tubes  by  the  small  wheels  and  screw 
underneath  the  furnace.  Valves  for  controlling  the  tempera- 
ture are  located  within  easy  reach.  Thus  the  operator  can 
regulate  the  fire  to  suit  his  work  and  draw  the  tubes  forward 
without  changing  his  position.  The  escaping  gases  pass  out 
at  the  rear  end  and  warm  up  the  incoming  tubes,  as  well  as 
making  it  comfortable  for  the  operator  by  conducting  them 
away  from  the  front. 

Heaters 

In  Figs.  168  and  169  is  illustrated  a  ladle-heater  that  is 
simple  in  design,  does  not  take  up  much  room,  and  yet  does 
the  work  perfectly.  It  can  be  used  with  either  city  or  natural 
gas.  •  Fig.  169  is  a  line  cut  showing  details  of  construction  of 
the  same. 


CHAPTER  V 

DROP-HAMMERS:  THEIR  DEVELOPMENT,  WEIGHTS,  FOUNDATIONS, 

AND    DIES 

The  Development  of  the  Drop-Hammer 

FROM  1847  to  1862,  among  the  green  hills  of  the  State  of 
Vermont,  there  was  located  one  of  the  best  equipped  plants 
for  the  manufacture  of  machine-tools  in  this  country.  It  was 
there,  in  the  years  1854  and  1855,  that  most  of  the  machin- 
ery was  built  for  the  manufacture  of  the  then  celebrated  En- 
field  rifle  for  the  English  Government,  on  the  interchangeable 
system.  Previous  to  that  time  they  made  their  fire-arms  on 
the  "cut  and  try"  plan,  or  by  what  we  would  term  in  this 
country  hand-work.  The  parts  were  made  in  different  shops; 
for  instance,  one  manufacturer  was  skilled  in  making  the 
barrel;  another,  the  stock;  another,  part  of  the  lock,  and  so 
on  through  the  list.  The  various  parts  were  assembled  at  the 
Tower  of  London,  and  it  was  there  that  the  "cut  and  try" 
plan  commenced,  filing  a  little  here,  clipping  off  a  little  there, 
with  several  trials  before  the  parts  would  go  together  satis- 
factorily. 

On  the  introduction  of  American  machinery  all  this  was 
changed,  for  it  was  found  possible  to  machine  the  pieces  of 
the  arms  so  that  the  same  kind  would  be  exact  duplicates  of 
each  other;  consequently  the  cost  of  production  was  reduced 
and  the  quantities  in  a  given  time  increased  over  the  old 
method. 

To  America  is  due  the  credit  of  introducing  the  inter- 
changeable system  in  the  manufacture  of  firearms,  sewing- 
machines,  watches,  etc. 

It  was  necessary  to  have  uniform  forgings,  so  that  they 
could  be  handled  in  special  fixtures  adapted  to  the  different 

163 


164  DROP- FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

parts.  The  art  of  forging  in  dies  at  that  date  was  the  weak 
point.  Drop-hammers  had  not  come  into  use,  and  all  the 
forgings  were  made  by  the  old  hand  swedging  processes,  repre- 
sented by  Fig.  1.  A  base  of  cast  iron,  with  suitable  opening 
in  the  top  for  keying  the  guide-stock  and  lower  die  was  set 
up,  the  upper  die  being  made  to  work  freely  up  and  down  in 
the  guide-stock.  In  the  faces  of  the  two  dies  were  cut  the 
forms  of  the  parts  to  be  forged.  The  power  used  was  ham- 
mer and  sledge,  wielded  by  the  smith  and  helper. 

So  far  as  can  be  learned,  drop-hammers  were  first  used  by 
Colonel  Samuel  Colt,  about  the  year  1853,  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  celebrated  revolving  firearm  that  bears  his  name. 

The  hammer  of  the  Colt  drop  was  raised  by  a  vertical 
revolving  screw.  In  the  first  year  of  the  Civil  War,  Golding 
&  Cheney  obtained  a  United  States  patent  on  a  drop-hammer, 
the  principal  feature  of  which  was  raising  the  hammer  by  a 
leather  belt  between  friction-rolls.  These  friction-rolls  are  in 
use  to-day  on  what  are  considered  the  best  hammers  for  drop- 
forging.  In  other  respects  there  have  been  great  improve- 
ments. Some  of  the  latest  of  these  improvements  are  ex- 
plained in  the  following. 

Counterbalanced  Treadle 

This  treadle  is  made  from  one  piece  of  steel-forging. 
The  advantage  of  this  construction  is  that  it  does  not  become 
"shackly"  from  wear,  and  when  the  pressure  is  put  on  one 
side  the  opposite  side  acts  simultaneously,  and  the  mechanism 
on  either  side  of  the  machine  does  its  work  as  it  was  designed 
to  do.  Instead  of  springs  to  hold  the  treadle  in  a  raised  posi- 
tion, counterbalance  is  provided  which  runs  across  the  back 
of  base  and  is  attached  at  either  end  to  levers  whose  fulcrums 
are  pine-driven  into  the  sides  of  the  base,  the  short  ends  of 
the  levers  having  projecting  points  extending  underneath  the 
sides  of  the  treadle  and  holding  it  in  the  raised  position 
desired. 

The  improvements  claimed  for  the  counterbalancing 
treadle  are  that  the  pressure  required  is  the  same  at  the  start  as 


DROP-HAMMERS:  THEIR  DEVELOPMENT,  ETC.  16$ 

at  the  finish  of  the  movement  of  the  treadle,  and  that  the  con- 
struction is  such  that  repairs  are  not  frequently  needed,  as  in 
the  cases  where  the  springs  or  pulleys  and  chains  are  used, 

Compound  Lever  Device  for  Operating  the  Lifting  or  Head 

Mechanism 

This  device  was  designed  with  a  view  to  lessen  the  shock 
of  the  blow  given  to  the  friction-bar  by  the  hammer  when  in 
operation.  It  consists  of  a  clamp  on  the  friction-bar,  having  a 
projection  on  the  inner  side,  which  acts  as  the  fulcrum  of  the 
lever,  whose  short  end  is  a  fork  which  engages  with  pins  pro- 
jecting from  the  left  hand  upright,  and  whose  long  end  is 
actuated  by  a  pin  in  the  hammer,  which  pin  is  placed  as  near 
the  right  hand  side  of  the  hammer  as  is  practicable,  in  order  to 
enable  the  long  arm  of  the  lever  to  be  made  as  great  a  length 
as  possible,  thereby  reducing  the  speed  of  the  movement 
given  to  the  friction-bar,  and  incidentally  the  shock  of  the 
blow. 

All  this  tends  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  repairs,  as  it  re- 
duces the  tendency  of  the  friction-bar  to  become  crystallized, 
and  it  imparts  to  all  the  friction  mechanism  a  moderate,  easy 
movement,  which  is  conducive  to  the  durability  of  that  part 
of  the  machine. 

Another  feature  of  this  device  is  the  ease  with  which  it  is 
adjusted  for  the  different  heights  from  which  the  hammer  falls. 
There  is  only  one  nut  to  turn,  and  when  this  is  loosened  the 
clamp  is  perfectly  free  upon  the  bar  and  will  drop  from  its 
own  weight,  or  can  be  raised  with  one  hand.  This  one  nut  is 
sufficient  to  hold  the  clamp  in  place,  as  the  latter  is  not  sub- 
jected to  the  sharp  blow  as  in  the  old  method. 

Jointed  Swinghead  Construction 

The  main  idea  of  this  construction  is  to  lessen  the  expense 
of  repairs.  The  two  sides  of  the  head  are  connected  by  a 
heavy  web  at  the  bottom  edges,  through  which  there  is  a 
rectangular  hole  to  accommodate  the  board.  The  upper 
halves  of  the  two  sides  are  fastened  to  the  main  head-casting 


166 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


by  a  hinge-joint  at  the  rear,  and  are  primarily  held  in  place  by 
the  small  swivel  bolts,  the  same  as  used  on  a  lathe  center-rest, 
and  incidentally  by  two  of  the  head-bolts  which  pass  through 
the  upper  and  lower  parts  as  well  of  the  head  and  through 
the  top  of  the  uprights. 

On  both  sides  of  the  machine,  running  horizontally 
through  the  upper  part  of  the  uprights,  through  the  web  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  head  and  into  the  rectangular  hole  in  the 
latter,  good  stout  bolts  are  used  which  hold  the  upper  part  of 
the  machine  rigidly  together,  and  relieve  the  head-bolts  proper 


THE  OLD  WAY. 
FIG.  170. — The  first  "interchangeable"  blacksmith. 

from  all  shearing  strain  and  also  obviate  the  elongation  by 
wear  of  the  holes  in  the  uprights.  The  eccentrics  are  made 
of  steel-castings,  which  are  stronger  and  more  durable  than 
bronze  or  gun  metal.  These  are  chambered  and  babbitt-lined, 
this  lining  being  easily  replaced  when  worn  out.  The  sliding 
rear  boxes  for  adjusting  the  friction  are  operated  in  the  usual 
way. 

Paper  Pulleys 

Experience  has  shown  that  iron  pulleys  are  not  reliable 
for  drop-hammers.  They  become  crystallized  and  break,  and 
some  one  is  likely  to  get  hurt.  Wood  pulleys  with  iron  hubs 


DROP-HAMMERS:  THEIR  DEVELOPMENT,   ETC.  167 


DROP  HAMMER  CONSTRUCTION. 
FIGS.  171  and  172. — Sectional  views  of  drop-hammer. 


168 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


are  very  good,  but  the  compressed  paper  pulleys  give  the  best 
results  and  satisfaction.  They  are  light  as  compared  with 
their  strength,  are  elastic,  and  give  excellent  belt  surface. 

Method  of  Fastening  Board  In  Hammer 

An  oblong  cavity,  from  4  to  8   inches  long  and  about   5 
inches  deep  by  1  ^   inches  wide,  is  machined  in  the  top  of 


FIG.  173. — Board  fastening. 

the  hammer.  That  side  of  the  cavity  which  is  toward  the  back 
of  the  hammer  has  a  bevel  of  about  1 5  degrees,  the  cavity 
being  smaller  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom.  The  front  side 
of  the  cavity  being  straight,  the  rear  side  of  the  lifting-board 
has  a  bevel  corresponding  to  that  in  the  rear  side  of  the  cavity, 
a  steel-plate  placed  against  the  front  side  of  board,  and  two  or 
three  steel  wedges  lightly  driven  with  a  hand-hammer  between 
the  board  and  the  front  side  of  the  cavity.  At  every  blow  of 


DROP-HAMMERS:  THEIR  DEVELOPMENT,  ETC. 


169 


the  hammer,  when  the  machine  is  working,  these  wedges  be- 
come tighter  and  the  board  more  firmly  held. 

Foundations: — Ratio  of  Base  as  Compared  with  height  of 

Hammer 

There  seems  to  be  a  variance  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the 
proper  foundations  for  a  drop-hammer.  Several  articles  have 
appeared  in  the  technical  journals  in  regard  to  same.  Several 
favor  a  rigid,  rocklike  foundation,  and  others  favor  an  elastic 
construction.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  weight  of  the  base  of 
the  machine,  as  compared  to  the  weight 
of  the  blow  given  by  the  hammer,  should 
have  more  or  less  consideration  in  deter- 
mining the  construction  of  the  founda- 
tion. It  is  apparent  that  if  a  man  tried 
to  do  some  hand-forging  with  an  ordinary 
flat  iron  held  bottom  up  between  his 
knees  for  an  anvil,  the  result  would  not 
be  altogether  satisfactory,  but  if  it  were 
possible  for  him  to  hold  a  piece  of  iron 
weighing,  say,  400  pounds  on  his  knees, 
he  would  do  more  execution  with  his 
hammer  and  in  addition  could  stand  some 
pretty  strong  blows  from  his  helper's 
sledge.  From  this  illustration  I  argue 
that  if  the  base  of  a  drop-hammer  could 
be  made  heavy  enough,  no  foundation 
whatever  would  be  required.  The  inertia  of  the  mass  of 
metal  would  be  sufficient  to  absorb  the  effects  of  the  shock 
imparted  by  the  blow  of  the  hammer. 

The  cost  and  difficulties  of  handling,  however,  make  such 
an  arrangement  out  of  the  question.  Within  the  past  years  an 
increase  in  the  weight  of  the  bases  of  drop-hammers  has  been 
a  move  in  the  right  direction.  In  deciding  this  point,  a  cer- 
tain ratio  between  the  weight  of  the  hammer  proper  and  the 
base  is  considered.  In  former  years  the  ratio  of  6  to  1  was 
considered  sufficient.  This  was  increased  by  some  machine- 


FIG.  174. — Board 
fastening. 


170 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


builders  to  10  to  1,  and  now  the  most  modern  practise  advo- 
cates a  ratio  of  15  to  1. 

To  return  to  the  subject  of  foundations,  I  would  not  ven- 
ture to  say  which  construction  will  give  the  best  results,  owing 
in  a  measure  to  the  variations  of  conditions,  particularly  the 
foundations  of  the  earth  where  the  machine  is  to  be  located. 


FIG.  175. — Drop-hammer  foundations. 

In  fairly  hard  ground,  such  as  clay,  or  where  "hard  pan"  can 
be  reached  within  fifteen  feet  of  the  surface,  the  following  con- 
struction will  give  satisfaction :  At  the  bottom  of  the  excava- 
tion put  in  two  or  three  feet  of  broken  stone  and  Portland 
cement;  on  top  of  this  place  chestnut  timbers  on  end.  These 
timbers  to  be  sawed  on  four  sides  and  bolted  together,  the 
section  of  the  block  to  be  of  sufficient  size  to  accommodate  the 


DROP-HAMMERS:  THEIR  DEVELOPMENT,  ETC. 


171 


base  of  the  machine,  and  to  have  about  4  inches  margin.  It  is 
preferable  to  have  the  upper  end  of  the  timbers  several  inches 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  as  there  will  then  be  less 
liability  to  decay. 

With  a  base  of  right  proportion  and  a  properly  constructed 
foundation,  the  old  method  of  fastening  down  the  base  by  an- 


"C 

p 

f  '  ' 
M 

1 

1 

I  < 

I 

^  33^-1- 

Concrete     i 

;     ,6150  Lbs., 

^^  Leather 

!  I  ^ 


FIG.  176. — Drop-hammer  foundations. 

chor  bolts  is  unnecessary.  Angle  irons  at  the  corners  of  the  base, 
fastened  down  to  the  foundation  with  lag  screws,  will-  answer 
the  purpose. 

Foundations  for  Drop-Hammers 

One  of  the  perplexing  problems  of  the  mechanical  engineer 
is  this  very  securing  of  satisfactory  foundations  for  large  ham- 


172 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


mers,  whether  steam-hammers  or  drop-hammers.  Numerous 
experiments  have  been  tried  with  both  elastic  or  yielding 
foundations  and  with  those  in  which  every  precaution  has  been 
taken  to  make  them  as  solid  as  possible.  The  builders  of  the 
drop-hammers  quite  naturally  have  experimented  and  accu- 
mulated experience  of  their  own  in  this  line,  and  must  be 
assumed  to  know  most  of  what  is  attainable  on  the  subject. 


Plane  off  top 
Cast  iron  cap 
1°  Thick  all  over  set 
2  pipe  into  masonry 


to  receive  bolts  and 
fill  in  space  around 
them  with  cement 
when  base  lias  been 
set  in  place 


FIG.  177. — Drop-hammer  foundations. 

I  present  herewith  (Figs.  176,  177)  a  standard  drawing  of 
a  drop-hammer  foundation  of  the  Pratt  &  Whitney  Company. 
They  say:  "We  do  not  advocate  much  woodwork  under  these 
hammers,  but  would  advise  building  a  foundation  of  concrete 
or  square  block  of  stone  or  cast  iron,  bedded  down  to  hard 


DROP-HAMMERS:  THEIR  DEVELOPMENT,  ETC.          173 


FIG.  178. — Front  view  of  Ambler 
drop-hammer. 


FIG.  179.— Side  view  of 
Ambler  drop-hammer. 


174 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 


bottom.     This  is  quite  a  departure  from  the  usual  way  of 
setting  a  hammer,  but  it  has  been  found  to  be  much  better, 

more  effective,  and  less  liable  to  break- 
age than  with  a  wood  foundation.  All 
the  cushion  necessary  with  this  foun- 
dation is  but  one  layer  of  leather  un- 
der the  bed-piece.  Too  much  atten- 
tion cannot  be  paid  to  the  foundations 
of  drop-hammers.  In  all  cases  exca- 
vate to  hard  bottom,  or,  better  still, 
to  rock.  This  information  therefore 
seems  to  be  of  little  use  where  neither 
hard  bottom  nor  rock  is  to  be  found. 

The  drawing  shows  a  foundation 
built  up  of  hard  brick.  Of  course 
large  stone-masonry  is  much  better, 
but  a  cast-iron  box,  set  into  the  ground 
and  rilled  with  Portland  cement,  is 
best.  Solid  stone-masonry  is  used  by 
the  Gorham  Silver  Plate  Company, 
Providence,  R.  I.  They  have  drop- 
hammers  of  3,000  pounds  weight  of 
ram  working  on  these  foundations. 

Drop-Hammer  Effects 

The  Miner  &  Peck  Manufactur- 
ing Company,  of  New  Haven,  Conn., 
have  determined  the  relative  effects 
produced  by  hammers  of  drops  falling 
from  different  heights.  They  show 
the  economy  of  using  heavier  hammers 
with  short  lifts.  This  is  illustrated 
in  the  following  way:  "If  you  are  op- 
erating a  hammer  of,  say,  100  pounds, 
at  the  same  height  you  will  obtain  a  result  four  times  as  great 
with  an  expenditure  of  four  times  the  horse-power;  while  if 
you  raise  your  100-pound  hammer  four  times  as  high  you 


FIG.  180.— The  drop- 
rod. 


DROP-HAMMERS:  THEIR  DEVELOPMENT,  ETC.  175 


FIGS.  181  and  182. — Details  of  construction. 


76 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 


will  expend  four  times  the  horse-power  in  doing  so."  The 
table  shows  the  time  consumed,  the  velocity,  and  the  dynamic 
effect  (expressed  in  pounds  of  static  pressure)  produced  by  a 
solid  body  weighing  one  pound  falling 
freely  from  rest  by  the  force  of  gravity. 

The  Ambler  Drop-Hammer 

The  endurance  of  drop-hammer 
dies  and  the  quality  of  the  work  turned 
out  by  them  depend  very  much  of 
course  upon  the  hammer  with  which 
the  work  is  done.  We  illustrate  here- 
with a  hammer  designed  by  A.  A. 
Ambler,  who  for  many  years  made  a 
specialty  of  drop-hammer  work  in 
connection  with  various  manufacturing 
concerns,  and  is  now  superintendent 
of  the  Foos  Manufacturing  Company, 
of  Springfield,  Ohio,  builders  of  the 
hammer.  The  cuts  show  one  of  the 
hammers  as  used  in  the  smith-shop 
of  the  company.  The  views  in  Figs. 
178  and  179  are  made  from  drawings. 
It  will  here  be  seen  that  the  method  of 
fastening  the  housings  to  the  anvil- 
block  is  unusual,  two  bolts  passing 
through  each  at  an  angle  as  shown, 
these  tending  not  only  to  keep  the 

housings  firmly  seated  within  the  recess  in  the  block,  but  also 
firmly  against  the  adjusting  screws  by  means  of  which  the 
guides  are  adjusted  to  proper  position.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  there  are  locks  for  these  screws  that  prevent  them  being 
disturbed  by  the  shock.  This  is  shown  more  fully  at  Figs. 
181  and  182.  At  the  top  the  housings  are  attached  to  the 
crosspiece  by  through  bolts,  and  are  seated  to  what  really 
constitutes  a  dovetail;  locking  all  together  very  firmly,  the 
surfaces  are  about  18  inches  \vide  and  the  bolts  have  elastic 


FIG.  183.  —  Construc- 
tion details. 


DROP-HAMMERS:  THEIR  DEVELOPMENT,  ETC. 


177 


washers  under  the  nut  and  heads.     This   is  also  shown  in 
Figs.  181  and  182. 

The  drop-rod  C  (shown  separately  in  Fig.  180)  is  jointed 
and  operates  the  eccentric  positively,  as  it  is  always  kept  ver- 
tical. D  is  the  automatic  trip-rod  with  a  steel  latch  E  keyed 
to  it  and  tripping  dog  F,  adjusting  collar  G  and  torsional 
spring  //,  by  which  it  is  seen  that  when  the  hammer-head 
drops  the  wedge-shaped  portion  /  engages  with  the  dog  F, 
turning  the  trip-rod  and  latch  sufficiently  to  release  the  drop- 
rod  so  it  can  fall.  By  means  of  the  torsional  spring  H  the 
trip-rod  D  is  made  very  flexible  and  sensitive  at  the  top,  and 
by  means  of  the  vernier  spacing  of  the  holes  in  the  adjusting 


FIG.  184. — Construction  details. 

collar  G,  almost  any  flexure  of  the  trip-rod  R  is  obtained. 
The  tripping  dog  F  is  adjustable  vertically  on  the  trip  to  be 
made  at  the  most  advantageous  points,  whether  the  dies  in  use 
are  high  or  low. 

There  is  also  an  improved  cushion-bumper  for  the  drop- 
rod  which  has  proven  by  extensive  tests  to  give  a  positive  but 
easy  action  to  the  rod,  entirely  avoiding  levers  and  similar 
complications.  This  construction  requires  no  more  attention 
in  changing  from  a  high  to  a  low  stroke  than  if  the  bumper 
were  made  of  solid  steel-block. 

It  is  recognized  that  in  all  friction  roll-hammers,  perfect 
control  of  the  action  of  the  hammer  can  be  obtained  through 
the  lifting  board,  only  when  it  is  entirely  free  from  foreign 


173 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


substances,  especially  oil.  In  recognition  of  this  fact  the 
hammer  under  consideration  is  provided  with  a  special  device 
for  avoiding  trouble  from  this  source.  The  bearings  all  have 
chambers  holding  the  oil  in  check  until  required  for  lubrica- 
tion, and  in  case  any  of  it  should  escape  it  is  forced  to  the 
end  of  the  roll  and,  by  the  centrifugal  force  to  the  cavity 
packed  with  wool  or  other  absorbent  material  and  there  re- 
tained, thus  preventing  it  from  ever  reaching  the  working 
surface  of  the  roll  or  getting  on  to  the  board.  A  portion  of 
the  trouble  with  the  hammer-boards  is  found  to  result  from 
the  fact  that  they  are  subjected  to  an  excess  of  heat  upon  one 

side,  this  heat  coming  from 
the  furnace.  In  this  ham- 
mer the  board  is  so  keyed 
into  the  hammer  proper  that 
it  can  be  reversed,  side  by 
side  and  end  for  end,  thus 
equalizing  all  conditions  and 
wear. 

These  hammers  are  all 
designed  upon  a  general  ra- 
tio of  1 5  to  1  with  reference 
to  the  weight  of  anvil  and 
hammer-head.  In  service  the  requirements  demanded  of 
these  hammers  have  been  especially  severe  and  exacting. 
For  instance,  in  the  Springfield  works  of  the  International 
Harvester  Company,  where  hammers  are  used  placed  within 
art  inch  of  the  natural  bed-rock,  they  have  retained  their 
adjustments  satisfactorily. 

Securing  Hammer-Heads 

Fig.  185  illustrates  a  method  for  securing  hammer-heads 
to  piston-rods.  A  small  space  left  below  the  bottom  of  the 
rod  allows  the  taper  portion  (^  inch  to  1  foot  length  of  taper 
equal  to  twice  the  diameter  of  rod)  to  drive  into  the  ram  good 
and  solid.  The  pin  is  for  the  purpose  of  raising  the  ram  dur- 
ing the  first  stroke  or  two  of  the  hammer.  When  the  piston- 


FIG.  185. — Method  of  securing 
hammer-heads. 


DROP-HAMMERS:  THEIR  DEVELOPMENT,  ETC. 


179 


rod  is  first  placed  into  the  ram,  the  pin  is  made  to  rest  against 
the  lower  end  of  the  notch  planed  in  the  rod,  giving  the  pin 
about  one  inch  play  above  it,  for  driving  the  rod.  There  is 
also  a  space  in  the  ram  around  the  straight  part  of  the  body, 
as  it  is  thought  to  be  a  difficult  matter  to  obtain  a  perfect  fit 
around  the  straight,  and  also  the  tapered  part  of  the  rod.  I 
have  known  hammer-heads  fitted  up  in  this  style  (taper  posi- 
tion a  good  ground  fit)  where  it  was  necessary  to  bore  the  rod 
out  of  the  ram  after  it  had  snapped  off.  This  tight  fit  was 
caused  simply  by  driving  the  rod  into  the  ram,  working  the 
hammer  under  ordinary  conditions;  no  shrinking  of  ram  to 
rod  or  anything  of  that  kind  being  necessary.  In  one  case 
where  the  piston  had  been  fitted  into  the  ram,  as  here  shown, 


FIG.  186. — Fastening  hammer-dies. 

the  ram  was  heated  to  expand,  which  generally  answers  the 
purpose  of  loosening  the  rod,  but  was  "no  go."  I  have  heard 
some  suggest  that  there  was  danger  of  splitting  the  ram  with 
this  arrangement,  but  I  never  knew  this  to  be  the  case,  and 
have  seen  many  hammers  built.  However,  care  should  be 
taken  to  set  the  anvil  ll/2  inches  or  2  inches  higher  than  the 
working  level,  to  allow  for  the  natural  settling  of  the  founda- 
tion, and  also  for  the  probable  %  inch  drive  of  the  piston 
into  the  rod. 

Hammer-Dies 

The  following  pertains  to  file-forging  dies.  There  were 
fifteen  hammers,  mostly  Bradley  cushion,  but  a  few  of  them 
were  plain  trip-hammers.  They  had  a  lot  of  trouble  with  the 
dies  from  the  shanks  breaking  off,  as  at  a,  Figs.  186,  187.  I 
suggested  for  an  experiment  to  make  them  as  at  by  which  gave 


180 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


FIG.  187. — Drop-hammer  for  heavy  work. 


DROP-HAMMERS:  THEIR  DEVELOPMENT,  ETC.  181 

good  satisfaction  and  service,  besides  saving  a  lot  of  time  and 
work  in  making  the  dies. 

As  our  work  was  steel,  we  used  on  the  larger  sizes  of  work 
a  small  blast  to  blow  the  scale  off  the  dies,  instead  of  using 
water.  On  the  small  sizes  we  did  not  use  anything,  as  gener- 
ally the  scale  did  not  give  much  trouble.  These  dies  were 
made  of  blocks  that  we  got  about  the  right  sizes  from  the 
steel-makers.  There  were  about  twenty  different  sizes.  The 
dies  had  to  be  dressed  over  about  once  a  month,  and  making 
new  ones  and  keeping  the  old  ones  in  repair  was  about  as 
much  as  one  man  wanted  to  do. 

Improved  and  Up-to-Date  Drop- Hammer 

Modern  manufacturing  demands  heavier  work  in  all  de- 
partments, and  the  forging-plant  has  in  many  cases  outgrown 
the  lighter  hammer  of  a  few  years  ago.  To  meet  new  condi- 
tions, and  as  a  result  of  experience  in  its  own  plant,  the 
Billings  &  Spencer  Company,  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  now 
build  a  new  drop-hammer  known  as  model  C,  and  shown  in 
Fig.  187. 

An  improved  board-clamp  catch-up  is  employed,  which 
does  away  with  the  latch  and  connection  at  the  side  for  hold- 
ing up  the  ram.  The  board  clamp  is  of  an  entirely  new 
design,  and  is  located  at  the  extreme  top  of  the  machine  above 
the  friction-rolls  or  lifting  device.  This  makes  it  impossible 
for  oil  to  get  between  the  clamps  and  board,  which  has  here- 
tofore been  the  cause  of  much  inconvenience  where  the  board- 
clamps  have  been  used.  Positive  action  is  assured  in  the 
clamps  by  the  operation  of  cams  or  eccentrics  controlled  by  a 
foot  lever  attached  to  the  base  of  the  machine. 

Another  feature  is  a  novel  adjustment  of  the  rear  friction- 
roll  by  means  of  an  eccentric,  a  duplicate  of  that  used  in 
engaging  the  front  friction-roll,  the  two  rolls,  with  their 
eccentrics  being  interchangeable.  By  this  means  of  adjust- 
ment a  true  alignment  between  the  lifting-board  and  rolls  is 
always  preserved. 


182  DROP- FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

A  new  form  of  bronze  bushing  is  introduced  on  the  eccen- 
tric bearings,  which  is  easily  and  quickly  removed  and  re- 
placed. The  same  eccentric  adjustment  is  also  employed  on 
the  rear  board-clamp.  These  adjustments  of  the  rear  friction 
roll  and  rear  board-clamp  are  made  by  means  of  bars  attached 
to  the  eccentrics  and  running  down  parallel  to  the  upright  to 
within  easy  reach  of  the  operator  on  the  floor.  An  improved 
method  is  also  employed  in  attaching  the  head  to  the  up- 
right. 

The  uprights  used  on  the  new  model  are  especially  de- 
signed to  reduce  the  liability  of  breakage,  the  distribution  of 
metal  being  such  as  to  afford  J:he  maximum  strength.  The 
cross-section  of  the  uprights  is  that  of  a  letter  V,  the  apex 
forming  the  guide  for  the  ram  with  a  longitudinal  rib  running 
its  entire  length  to  add  strength.  An  important  feature  in 
the  construction  of  this  machine  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  up- 
rights remain  solid  throughout  their  lengths,  no  weakening 
perforations  being  necessary  in  the  placing  of  attachments. 
An  improved  adjustment  for  the  uprights  is  employed  at  the 
junction  of  the  base  and  uprights. 

The  releasing  lever  attached  to  the  outside  of  the  left- 
hand  upright  has  an  improved  adjustment.  This  adjustment 
is  in  the  form  of  a  modified  rack,  intervals  of  1  ^  inches 
allowing  the  ram  to  be  released  at  any  desired  height. 

Capacity  of  Steam-Hammers  and  Size  of  Work 

For  making  an  occasional  forging  of  a  given  size,  a 
smaller  hammer  may  be  used  than  if  we  were  manufactur- 
ing this  same  piece  in  large  quantities.  If  we  have  a  six-inch 
piece  to  forge,  such  as  a  pinion  or  a  short  shaft,  a  hammer  of 
about  1,100  pounds  capacity  would  answer  very  nicely.  But 
should  the  general  work  be  as  large  as  this,  it  would  be  very 
much  better  to  use  a  1,500-pound  hammer.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  we  wish  to  forge  six-inch  axles  economically,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  use  a  7,000  or  8,000  pound  hammer.  The  fol- 
lowing table  will  be  found  convenient  for  reference  for  the 


DROP-HAMMERS:  THEIR  DEVELOPMENT,  ETC.  183 

proper  size  of  hammer  to  be  used  on  different  classes  of  gen- 
eral blacksmith-work,  although  it  will  be  understood  that  it 
is  necessary  to  modify  these  to  suit  conditions,  as  has  already 
been  indicated. 

Diameter  of  Stock.  Size  of  Hammer. 

3}^  inches 250  to     350  pounds 

4  inches 350  to     600  pounds 

4!^  inches 600  to     800  pounds 

5  inches 800  to  1,000  pounds 

6  inches 1,100  to  1,500  pounds 

Steam-hammers  are  usually  operated  at  pressures  varying 
from  75  to  100  pounds  of  steam  per  square  inch,  and  may 
also  be  operated  by  compressed  air  at  about  the  same  pres- 
sures. It  is  cheaper,  however,  in  the  case  of  compressed  air, 
to  use  pressures  from  60  to  80  pounds  instead  of  going 
higher. 

In  figuring  on  the  boiler  capacity  for  steam-hammers, 
there  are  several  things  to  be  considered,  and  it  depends  upon 
the  number  of  hammers  in  use  and  the  service  required.  It 
will  vary  from  one  boiler  horse-power  for  each  100  pounds  of 
falling  weight  up  to  three  horse-power  for  the  same  weight, 
according  to  the  service  expected.  In  a  shop  where  a  num- 
ber of  steam-hammers  are  being  used,  it  is  usually  safe  to 
count  on  the  lower  boiler  capacity  given,  as  it  is  practically 
safe  to  say  that  all  of  the  hammers  are  never  in  use  at  the 
same  time.  In  a  shop  with  a  single  hammer,  on  the  other 
hand,  and  especially  where  hard  service  is  expected,  it  is 
necessary  to  allow  the  larger  boiler  capacity,  as  there  is  no 
reserve  to  be  drawn  on,  due  to  part  of  the  hammers  being 
idle,  as  in  the  other  case. 

Steam-hammers  are  always  rated  by  the  weight  of  the  ram, 
and  the  attached  parts,  which  include  the  piston  and  rod, 
nothing  being  added  on  account  of  the  steam-pressure  behind 
the  piston.  This  makes  it  a  little  difficult  to  compare  them 
with  plain  drop  or  tilting  hammers,  which  are  also  rated  in 
the  same  way. 


184  DROP- FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

Rules  for  Finding  the  Capacity  of  Steam-Hammers,  and  the 
Horse-Power  Required  for  Operation 

\  call  attention  to  some  simple  rules  regarding  steam-ham- 
mer practise,  which  may  be  of  value  to  some  of  my  readers. 
The  first  of  these  rules  gives  the  horse-power  required  to  run 
a  hammer  of  any  size,  and  may  be  expressed  as  follows: 
Divide  the  rated  capacity  of  the  hammer ;  in  pounds ;  by  100,  and 
the  quotient  will  be  the  horse-power  required  to  run  the  hammer 
constantly. 

This  rule  is  also  applicable  in  cases  where  the  hammer  is 
not  run  constantly,  by  estimating  the  amount  of  time  the 
hammer  is  idle  each  hour  and  making  allowance  therefor. 
But  it  will  be  noted  that  in  case  the  hammer  is  not  run  con- 
stantly, or  nearly  so,  and  the  horse-power  is  correspondingly 
reduced,  sufficient  steam-storage  space  must  be  provided  in 
the  boiler  to  prevent  the  steam-pressure  being  drawn  down 
much  faster  than  it  is  made  during  the  working  period. 

The  second  rule  deals  with  the  estimate  of  the  proper  size 
of  hammer  to  be  used  in  working  iron  and  steel  of  any  de- 
sired cross-sectional  area.  The  rule  is  as  follows: 

Multiply  the  greatest  cross-section  desired  to  be  worked  in  the 
hammer  by  80,  if  of  steel,  or,  60,  if  of  iron,  and  the  product  will 
be  the  rated  value  of  the  hammer  required  in  pounds. 

This  rule  will  give  a  hammer  for  safely  working  material 
of  the  size  specified,  at  one  heat.  No  doubt  many  of  my 
readers  are  doing  what  we  frequently  do,  that  is,  work  billets 
which  exceed  in  size  that  which  would  be  allowable  if  the  rule 
was  always  followed. 

Development  of  Steam  Dr op-Hammers 

Without  raising  the  question  of  who  was  the  pioneer  in 
steam  drop-hammers,  Mr.  F.  B.  Miles,  who  later  became  a 
member  of  the  firm  of  Bement,  Miles  &  Co.,  designed  in 
1872  what  seems  to  be  the  first  steam  drop-hammer  made  by 
his  company,  and  which  was  sold  to  the  Baldwin  Locomotive 


DROP-HAMMERS:  THEIR  DEVELOPMENT,  ETC.  185 

Works.  Since  that  time  this  class  of  machinery  has  grown  to 
be  a  large  factor  in  the  product  of  Bement,  Miles  &  Co.,  now 
the  Niles-Bement-Pond  Company. 

Since  the  first  hammers  were  made  by  Mr.  Miles,  there 
has  been  little  change  in  the  important  points  of  construction, 
such  modifications  as  have  been  made  being  simply  augmenta- 
tion, with  the  vital  or  working  parts  as  he  conceived  them. 
As  a  proof  of  the  good  design  Mr.  Miles  produced,  I  have  to 
point  out  that  most,  if  not  all,  steam-hammers  manufactured 
in  this  country  to-day  are  constructed  on  the  same  lines,  and 
the  illustrations  of  them  point  very  strongly  to  direct  copies 
of  what  has  become  known  throughout  the  trade  as  "Bement 
hammers,"  which  shows  a  growth  of  the  same  mechanism  pro- 
duced over  thirty  years  ago  by  practically  the  same  company, 
and  with  no  radical  differences  in  principles. 


CHAPTER  VI 

STEEL   AND    IRON!     TWISTING,     REDUCING,    AND    FORGING. 

TREATMENT    FOR   WORKING    IN    MACHINE    FORGING 

Action  of  Steel  and  Iron   Under  Different  Degrees  of  Heat 

A  FEW  years  ago  some  ornamental  forgings  were  being 
made  by  students  in  the  blacksmith-shop  of  the  Alabama 
Polytechnic  Institute.  The  designs  included  some  pieces  of 
^  inch  square,  which  were  to  be  twisted,  and  the  students 
were  having  difficulty  in  getting  a  uniform  pitch  to  the  twist. 
The  iron  would  be  heated  for  several  inches,  clamped  in  a 
vise,  and  twisted  with  a  pair  of  tongs.  As  would  naturally 
occur,  the  piece  of  iron  was  clamped  in  the  vise  and  clasped 
by  the  tongs  near  the  ends  of  the  hot  part  where  the  heat 
merged  from  red  to  black.  In  almost  every  case  when  the 
twist  would  be  made  it  would  appear  greater  at  the  ends  near 
the  vise  and  tongs. 

The  first  conclusion  was  that  the  fastenings  must  exert 
some  influence  to  produce  the  effect.  A  piece  was  tried  with 
the  fastenings  attached  directly  to  the  bright  parts.  In  this 
case  the  twist  came  out  very  uniform.  A  long  piece  was  then 
heated  in  the  middle  and  clamped  at  the  ends  where  the  irons 
were  cold.  On  making  the  twist  the  same  effect  was  observed 
as  at  first,  the  greater  twist  occurring  in  the  dark-red  heat. 

Samples  of  ^2 -inch  round  iron  were  then  tried  to  see  if  the 
form  of  cross-section  had  any  influence.  So  far  as  could  be  ob- 
served, the  effect  was  the  same  as  the  square  iron.  The  forge 
in  which  the  specimens  were  heated  was  thoroughly  cleaned 
and  samples  of  >^-inch  round  iron  were  then  tried  to  see  if 
the  form  of  cross-section  had  any  influence.  So  far  as  could 
be  observed,  the  effect  was  the  same  as  the  square  iron.  The 
forge  in  which  the  specimens  were  heated  was  thoroughly 

186 


STEEL   AND    IRON!    THEIR   TREATMENT,    ETC.  187 

cleaned  and  a  fresh  fire  built  with  the  good,  clean  blacksmith 
coal,  samples  of  which  were  analyzed  in  the  Chemical  Labora- 
tory and  shown  to  be  very  low  in  sulfur  and  phosphorus. 
The  results  were  the  same  as  before. 

Finally,  two  students — Messrs.  J.  S.  Black  and  M.  F. 
Kahm — took  up  the  investigation  as  a  subject  for  this  work, 
spending  a  good  deal  of  time  and  obtaining  the  following 
results.  The  work,  while  not  exhaustive,  covered  a  good 
deal  of  ground  and  was  carefully  done.  The  results  are  inter- 
esting if  they  establish,  as  the  writer  believes  they  do,  that 
wrought  iron  is  stronger  when  at  a  white  heat  than  when  at  a 
red  heat. 

Careful  search  was  made  through  the  literature  available, 
but  only  one  reference  was  found  alluding  to  similar  observa- 
tions. This  was  in  the  American  Machinist  of  November  11, 
1897,  in  an  article  by  Mr.  B.  F.  Spaulding.  He  says:  "There 
is  a  peculiarity  about  some  iron  which  I  have  often  observed 
with  curiosity,  but  which  I  do  not  remember  to  have  seen 
mentioned.  If  a  bar  of  this  iron  is  heated  for  some  distance 
in  the  length  of  it  to  a  uniform  white  heat,  it  appears  to  be 
stiffer  in  that  portion  than  it  is  at  the  lower  temperature,  the 
red-hot  part,  which  intervenes  between  the  cold  ends  and  the 
white  hot  part. 

"This  peculiarity  of  being  less  readily  bent  where  it  is  the 
hottest  is  shown  when  an  attempt  is  made  to  bend  it  by  letting 
the  middle  rest  against  something,  as,  for  instance,  the  horn 
of  the  anvil,  while  each  end  is  pressed  in  a  direction  to  bend 
the  bar.  The  bar  will  then  have  a  greater  bend  at  the  places 
where  it  is  red  than  along  the  part  where  it  is  white." 

Materials  Used  in  Experiments 

The  inference  from  reading  this  article  is  that  Mr.  Spauld- 
ing only  attributed  this  property  to  certain  kinds  of  iron,  or  to 
iron  under  certain  conditions,  but  the  experiments  seemed  to 
show  that  all  wrought  irons  are  similarly  affected.  The  mate- 
rial for  these  experiments  consisted  of  the  following  stock,  all 
^  inch  square  and  ordered  from  a  jobbing  house:  Jessop  tool 


188 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


steel,  a  medium  grade  of  American  tool-steel,  machinery 
steel,  Norway  iron,  charcoal  iron,  and  common  or  stone-coal 
iron. 

The  forge  for  heating  the  specimens  was  fixed  with  fire- 
brick to  limit  the  length  of  the  heat  on  each  specimen  and 
also  to  insure  a  uniform  length  for  all.  Special  care  was  taken 
to  keep  the  fire  clean  and  in  good  condition.  A  good  grade 
of  blacksmith-coal  was  used.  The  apparatus  for  twisting  con- 
sisted of  a  lathe  fitted  with  a  vise  and  an  extra  spindle  with  a 
large  socket  in  one  end  and  a  crank  fitted  on  the  other.  After 
the  specimen  had  been  heated,  one  end  was  put  in  the  socket 


FIG.  188. — Samples  of  Jessop  steel. 

and  the  other  end  fastened  in  the  vise  in  line  with  the  spindle. 
A  few  turns  on  the  crank  would  do  the  work. 

A  small  testing  machine  was  used  for  making  the  tension 
tests.  After  a  little  practise  the  boys  were  able  to  put  the 
specimen  in  the  clamps  and  pull  it  out  to  breaking  before  any 
marked  change  of  the  color  due  to  cooling  could  be  observed. 
No  effort  was  made  to  measure  the  pull  exerted  by  the  machine. 

For  the  bending  tests,  a  sliding-block,  operated  by  a  lever, 
was  made  to  press  on  one  end,  the  other  end  being  supported 
by  a  fixed  block.  The  specimens  for  this  test  had  the  ends 
made  hemispherical. 

In  another  test  a  small  hammer-head  was  fitted  with  a 
punch  ground  to  an  angle  of  60  degrees  and  attached  to  a  long 


STEEL   AND    IRON:    THEIR    TREATMENT,    ETC.  189 

handle  pivoted  at  the  end.  Arrangements  were  made  to  fix 
the  distance  through  which  the  hammer  was  allowed  to  drop. 
The  specimen  was  heated,  as  in  the  other  tests;  laid  on  the 
anvil  under  the  .punch,  and  the  latter  raised  and  dropped 
rapidly  as  the  specimen  was  moved  along,  making  the  marks 
about  half  an  inch  apart. 

The  specimens  were  cut  from  the  bar  and  were  made  of 
convenient  length  for  the  different  tests.  For  the  twisting 
tests  they  were  about  12  inches  long  and  three  pieces  of  each 
kind  of  metal  were  tried.  The  illustrations  show  the  results 
very  clearly  (Figs.  188  to  195).  The  high  carbon  steel  shows 


FIG.  189. — Samples  of  ordinary  American  tool-steel. 

the  greatest  twist  at  the  point  of  highest  temperature.  The 
machinery-steel  gave  indefinite  results.  One  specimen  seemed 
weaker  in  the  hottest  part,  another  twist  most  at  the  red  heat, 
and  the  third  seemed  to  have  two  or  three  weak  points. 

The  specimens  of  wrought  iron  gave  unmistakable  evi- 
dence of  being  weaker  at  the  red  heat,  and  the  purer  the  iron 
the  more  marked  the  effect.  The  Norway  iron  seemed  to 
twist  all  at  one  place  in  the  dark-red  heat,  the  part  at  the 
white  heat  showing  very  little  twist.  The  charcoal  and  com- 
mon irons  showed  less  difference  in  strength  between  the 
two  temperatures,  though  the  differences  are  still  very  evi- 
dent. 

The  tension  specimens  show  similar  but,  if  possible,  more 


190 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 


uniform  results.  The  high  carbon  steels  show  the  reduced 
cross-section  at  the  point  of  the  highest  temperature,  while  the 
machinery,  tool,  and  the  different  grades  of  iron  have  the  points 
of  reduced  cross-section,  one  on  each  side  of  the  white-hot  part. 
A  number  of  these  specimens  pulled  apart  with  very  much  less 
reduction  of  area  than  the  material  would  have  shown  if  tested 
in  the  ordinary  way  and  at  the  usual  temperature. 

The  bending  tests  were  very  inconclusive.  Sometimes  the 
bend  would  occur  at  the  white-hot  part  and  sometimes  in  one 
of  the  red  parts,  but  never  in  a  way  to  give  definite  informa- 
tion, either  to  corroborate  or  contradict  that  obtained  from  the 


FIG.  190. — Samples  of  machinery  steel. 

preceding  tests.  The  specimens  shown  in  the  illustration  were 
bent  with  tongs  over  the  horn  of  an  anvil  in  the  manner  sug- 
gested by  Mr.  Spaulding  in  the  article  previously  referred  to. 
The  punching  tests  could  be  seen  by  the  eye  to  corroborate 
the  twisting  and  tension-tests,  but  the  marks  were  too  small 
to  show  in  photograph,  and  were  unsatisfactory  to  measure 
for  tabulation. 

Fuel  Used  in   Tests 

A  careful  analysis  of  the  coal  used  in  these  tests  showed 
less  than  one-half  of  one  per  cent,  of  sulfur.  Care  was  taken 
to  keep  the  fire  clean  and  a  sufficient  thickness  of  bed  was 
carried  to  insure  that  the  metal  would  not  be  struck  by  cur- 


STEEL   AND    IRON:    THEIR   TREATMENT,    ETC.  191 

rents  of  cool  air.  The  bars  were  heated  just  to  the  point  of 
sparking  in  the  middle,  and  the  total  length  of  the  heated 
part  was  about  6  inches.  While  the  specimens  shown  in  the 
illustrations  were  all  made  in  one  series  of  tests,  yet  these 
results  have  been  duplicated  many  times  before  and  since  these 
tests  were  made,  taking  iron  from  different  lots  and  coal  from 
other  places.  If  these  results  are  due  to  impurities  in  the  fuel, 
it  would  seem  that  the  tool-steel  would  be  more  affected  than 
the  iron,  as  it  is  considered  more  susceptible  to  injury  from 
such  causes.  But  one  of  the  Jessop  steel  specimens  was 
twisted  more  than  twenty  revolutions  without  breaking,  show- 


FIG.  191. — Samples  of  good  charcoal  iron. 

ing  it  was  in  a  pretty  fair  condition.  Then  we  used  the  same 
fuel  for  tempering  taps,  dies,  reamers,  and  milling-cutters,  and 
they  stand  up  to  the  work  as  well  as  any  we  can  buy. 

If  this  peculiar  effect  is  due  to  some  molecular  action  in 
the  metal,  it  would  be  interesting  to  know  what  this  action  is 
and  what  causes  it.  It  seems  from  the  foregoing  tests  that  a 
small  amount  of  carbon  will  reduce  the  effect  and  that  a  larger 
amount  will  entirely  eliminate  it  and  cause  the  molecules  at 
the  highest  temperature  to  be  most  easily  moved.  The  writer 
has  desired  to  pursue  the  investigation  of  this  subject  further, 
but  time  has  not  permitted  him  to  do  so.  The  illustrations 
show  the  results  of  the  experiments  in  these. 


192 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


Practical  Results  of  Experiments 

Fig.  188  represents  three  samples  of  Jessop  steel.  The 
middle  one  was  twisted  more  than  twenty  revolutions  and  did 
not  break. 

Fig.  189  represents  ordinary  American  tool-steel. 

Fig.  190  represents  samples  of  machinery  steel.  One 
seemed  to  twist  most  in  the  hottest  part,  one  most  in  the  cool- 
est parts,  and  the  third  or  middle  specimen  twisted  very 
irregularlv. 


FIG.  192. — Samples  of  stone-coal  iron. 

Fig.  191  represents  samples  of  a  good  grade  of  charcoal 
iron.  It  will  be  noted  that  two  of  these  broke  off  at  the  dark- 
red  part  of  the  heat. 

Fig.  192  represents  specimens  of  common  or  stone-coal 
iron.  Two  of  these  are  fractured,  but  not  entirely  broken  off 
in  the  dark-red  part  of  the  heat. 

Fig.  193  represents  specimens  of  Norway  iron.  These  were 
the  first  specimens  tried,  and  there  was  a  slight  irregularity  in 
the  length  of  the  heated  part.  Also  one  of  the  specimens 
cooled  down  to  a  red  heat  before  being  twisted,  and  it  shows  a 
very  uniform  pitch. 

Fig.  194  represents  the  results  of  the  tension-tests.  Be- 
ginning at  the  left  there  is  Jessop  steel,  American  tool- 
steel,  machinery  steel,  charcoal  iron,  and  Norway  iron.  The 


STEEL   AND    IRON:    THEIR   TREATMENT,    ETC.  193 

machinery  steel  in  all  the  tension-tests  showed  the  same  char- 
acteristic as  the  wrought  iron. 

Fig.  195  represents  two  samples  of  wrought  iron  and  one 
of  the  machinery  steel.  These  were  bent  over  the  horn  of  an 
anvil  with  tongs.  The  machinery  steel  in  this  case  fails  to 
show  the  characteristics  referred  to  under  Fig.  194. 

Working  Stock  in  Drop-Dies 

A  considerable  part  of  the  expense  incurred  in  the  pro- 
duction of  drop-forgings  is  the  cost  of  the  dies  in  which  the 
work  is  shaped.  The  proportion  which  this  expense  bears  to 


.- 


FIG.  193. — Samples  of  Norway  iron. 

the  cost  of  a  certain  number  of  forgings  depends  upon  the 
durability  of  the  dies.  When  the  making  of  the  forgings  is  a 
permanent  business  and  they  are  in  constant  demand  in  such 
numbers  as  to  require  the  renewal  of  the  dies  from  time  to 
time  the  proportionate  cost  of  maintenance  of  the  dies  in  good 
condition  is  sometimes  insignificant  and  sometimes  important. 
There  are  circumstances  under  which  the  cost  of  dies  must 
be  noticed.  It  is  often  expedient  to  make  drop-forgings  in 
order  to  obtain  the  advantage  of  the  uniformity  which  the  dies 
give  them,  although  the  number  of  forgings  required  may  be 
so  small  that  the  dies  need  not  be  much  worn  when  the  entire 
amount  of  forgings  has  been  made,  but  in  this  instance,  as  in 
every  other,  it  is  for  obvious  reasons  very  desirable  to  have 


194 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


the  dies  retain  their  original  perfections  so  far  as  possible.  In 
such  cases  the  cost  of  the  dies  is  a  large  factor  in  the  cost  of 
the  work.  It  is  best  to  keep  them,  for  there  is  always  a  pos- 
sibility that  they  may  be  needed  again. 

Facilities  for  Reproduction  of  Drop-Dies 

When  it  becomes  evident  that  a  large  number  of  pieces  have 
to  be  made,  and  that  the  tools  for  making  them  will  require 


FIG.  194. — Results  of  tension  tests. 

frequent  renewal,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  economy  to  provide 
reasonable  facilities  for  the  reproduction  of  these  tools,  and  also 
to  fix  the  methods  which  should  be  adapted  for  the  use  of  the 
tools  so  as  to  insure  their  utmost  effectiveness  and  durability, 
and  restrict  within  the  narrowest  limits  the  expenses  of  profit- 
less manufacture.  On  drop-work,  for  instance,  it  is  to  be 
determined  what  sized  drop  shall  be  used,  and  how  many 
blows  shall  be  struck  at  each  operation.  Drop-dies  therefore 
come  well  within  the  scope  of  the  rule.  They  are  quite  ex- 
pensive in  both  material  and  workmanship,  and  are  often  sub- 


STEEL    AND    IRON!    THEIR   TREATMENT,    ETC. 


195 


jected  to  the  handling  of  piece  workmen  who  are  naturally  a 
good  deal  more  interested  in  getting  all  they  can  out  of  them, 
in  the  shortest  possible  time,  than  they  are  in  their  preser- 
vation. 

It  is  true  that  drop-hammer  men  soon  become  shrewd 
enough,  as  a  general  thing,  to  know  that  the  better  care  they 
take  of  their  dies,  the  easier  and  more  freely  they  will  work, 
but  as  they  stand  with  a  piece  of  work  in  the  die,  which  is  not 


FIG.  195. — Samples  of  wrought  iron  and  machinery  steel. 

quite  rilled  out  with  the  blows  already  struck  upon  it,  there  is 
but  an  instant  afforded  them  in  which  to  decide  whether  it  is 
best  to  give  the  cooling-piece  one  blow  more  without  reheat- 
ing, and  in  that  critical  moment  they  are  liable  to  be  overcome 
by  a  surge  of  self-interest,  and  decide  to  hit  it  again  and  risk 
the  die. 

Spoiling  Dies 

A  hot  piece  of  iron  might  lie  loosely  in  the  impression  of 
a  die  until  it  is  cooled.  It  could  become  cold  without  heating 
the  corners  around  the  impression  enough  to  seriously  affect 


196  DROP- FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

their  temper;  but  it  is  quite  a  different  thing  when  the  hot 
iron  has  already  been  struck  with  such  force  as  to  bring  it  into 
more  intimate  contact  with  the  steel  of  the  die  than  its  own 
grains  have  with  each  other,  for  the  steel  has  the  heat  abso- 
lutely forced  into  it  when  an  additional  blow  is  given.  If  this 
will  not  draw  the  temper,  nothing  will,  and  if  the  corner  of  the 
impression  is  already  almost  red-hot,  then  the  additional  blow, 
driving  down  on  almost  cold  fin,  will  drive  down  the  corner, 
and  make  it  overhang  and  hug  the  work  so  that  it  will  be  hard 
to  disengage  if  from  the  die.  Then  the  good  hammer-man, 
if  he  is  not  unmindful  of  the  future,  will  have  the  die  fixed 
before  it  gets  any  worse;  but  if  his  temper  rises  with  that  of 
the  die  until  his  work  sticks  so  bad  that,  in  removing  it,  it 
gets  out  of  shape  so  much  as  to  damage  it,  then  he  will  have 
the  die  repaired. 

A  drop  man  says  it  is  more  exasperating  to  have  the  work 
stick  in  the  upper  die  than  in  the  lower  one,  especially  if  the 
drop  is  working  on  a  high  stroke.  His  work  is  pulled  off  his 
grasp  in  spite  of  his  most  energetic  efforts  to  .retain  it.  He 
relates  that  he  was  amused  a  short  time  ago  to  hear  a  fellow, 
who  was  thus  bothered,  vent  his  feelings  by  exclaiming  to  his 
bewitched  work  as  it  went  upward,  "Oh,  you're  going  to  be 
an  angel,  ain't  ye?"  Sticking  in  the  upper  die  is  so  trouble- 
some that  it  is  generally  relieved  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  Dies  and  the  Drop 

As  a  general  rule  it  is  better  for  the  dies  to  have  the  blow 
of  the  drop  struck  on  the  hot  material  with  force  enough  to 
fill  them  at  the  first  stroke  without  allowing  it  to  remain  in 
them  for  a  repetition  of  the  blow.  This  would  often  require 
a  heavier  drop-hammer  than  is  available.  There  are  some 
objections  in  using  heavy  drops,  among  which  the  very 
palpable  one  of  first  cost  is  generally  effectual. 

There  is  another  which  demands  consideration,  and  that  is 
the  effect  which  the  sudden  application  of  power  to  raise  a 
heavy  weight  has  upon  the  shafting  and  carries  back  in  some 
measure  toward  the  prime  motor,  diffusing  itself  and  being 


STEEL   AND    IRON:    THEIR   TREATMENT,    ETC.  197 

absorbed,  partly,  among  the  revolving  pulleys  and  shafts  and 
running  belts  until  its  last  vibration  is  taken  up  by  the  fly- 
wheel. 

There  are  some  other  objections  also,  and  it  therefore  be- 
comes a  question  whether  it  is  better,  when  all  things  are  taken 
into  consideration,  to  drop  heavy  enough  to  make  the  piece 
at  one  blow,  or  strike  it  two  or  more. 

In  this  consideration  the  fact  must  not  be  neglected  that 
whether  a  heavy  drop  is  lifted  one  foot  to  strike  a  light  blow, 
or  five  feet  to  strike  a  heavy  blow,  the  application  of  power, 
required  to  give  it  its  first  impulse  upward,  is  as  great  in  one 
case  as  in  the  other,  and  therefore  the  effect  of  shock  upon  the 
motive  power  and  its  appliances  is  less  when  light  blows  are 
struck  with  light  drops  than  when  light  blows  are  struck  with 
heavy  drops. 

Economy  of  Dies 

Leaving  out  of  the  question,  however,  everything  but  the 
especial  economy  of  the  dies,  it  is  better  to  finish  at  one  blow 
all  the  work  the  dies  have  to  perform  at  each  insertion  of  the 
hot  piece.  The  dies  will  last  longer  when  thus  treated,  and 
the  corners  of  the  impressions  will  retain  their  original  form 
longer  than  when  the  pieces  are  submitted  to  more  blows 
before  removing  them  from  the  dies. 

The  effect  upon  the  work  of  striking  one  blow  or  more  is 
a  different  question  from  that  relating  to  the'  effect  upon 
the  dies,  and  to  this  question  it  must  be  replied  that  in  a 
majority  of  instances  the  stock  is  better  by  being  struck  more 
than  one  blow.  Action  and  reaction  are  equal,  however  much 
the  attacked  may  retire  before  the  advance.  The  falling  die 
delivers  its  force,  and  the  stock  is  driven  into  every  recess 
open  to  it,  but  there  is  reaction  enough  to  stop  the  blow, 
and  resiliency  still  in  the  struck  mass,  even  if  it  has 
been  strained  beyond  the  bounds  of  complete  recovery,  and 
instantly  before  the  weight  is  lifted — the  particles  have  re- 
covered to  some  extent  their  lost  positions,  or  have  moved 
back  toward  them  and  this  repulsion  leaves  them  with  an 


198  DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

open  grain,  and  it  is  only  by  striking  them,  blow  after  blow, 
that  the  particles  can  be  pressed  into  a  close  union  which  they 
will  retain,  each  blow  leaving  them  nearer  until  the  stock  is 
got  into  that  condition  when  the  force  of  the  blow  no  longer 
strains  them  beyond  the  limit  of  elastic  recovery. 

Practical  Effect  of  Working  Iron 

This  is  the  practical  effect  of  "working"  iron,  and  its 
benefits  are  more  or  less  displayed  on  drop-forging  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  blows  which  are  affected  up  to  the 
point  of  full  efficiency.  A  greater  blow  than  one  that  is 
efficient  produces  no  more  useful  effect  than  one  which  is 
simply  sufficient.  A  number  of  disturbances,  from  which  the 
forgings  recover  in  different  degrees,  is  necessary  to  produce 
close  texture  and  the  greatest  amount  of  cohesion;  in  short, 
the  best  material. 

Effect  of  Drops  on  Stock 

Practically  little  regard  is  paid,  as  things  go  in  shops  where 
drops  are  used,  to  the  effect  which  the  working  of  the  drops 
has  upon  the  stock.  In  the  olden  time,  when  the  black- 
smith's soul  was  in  his  work,  the  art  of  working  upon  the  anvil 
was  not  gaged  by  the  amount  of  work  thrown  upon  the  floor, 
but  somewhat,  also,  by  the  qualities  which  the  manner  in 
working  the  material  conferred  upon  it.  This  is  little  con- 
sidered now,  for  the  reason  that,  as  it  is  ordinarily  worked, 
the  material  is  abundantly  good  for  all  purposes  for  which  it 
is  used.  If  upon  trial  one  brand  of  stock  is  found  to  be 
defective  when  worked  in  a  certain  manner,  the  working 
practise  is  not  changed,  but  another  brand  of  stock  is  secured 
which  will  yield  good  results  when  worked  in  the  manner 
adopted. 

Working  in  Drop  and  Bending- Machine 

The  increasing  employment  of  bending-machines  has  ex- 
tended and  rendered  more  imperative  the  necessity  of  secur- 
ing stock  which  will  stand  the  peculiar  usage  to  which  it  is 


STEEL   AND    IRON:    THEIR   TREATMENT,    ETC.  199 

subjected  in  forming.  A  blacksmith  can  humor  the  peculiar- 
ities of  any  kind  of  iron  or  steel  by  his  manner  of  working  it 
upon  the  anvil,  but  a  man  who  runs  a  machine  which  makes 
600  or  900  strokes  an  hour,  and  is  called  upon  to  bend  a  piece 
of  iron  into  a  certain  form  at  every  stroke,  has  not  time  to  fool 
away  in  humoring  the  proclivities  of  any  die-stock.  He  may 
favor  it  within  reasonable  limits  by  his  manner  of  heating  it, 
but  when  it  is  submitted  to  the  action  of  the  machine,  the 
quality  of  mercy  is  strained  to  the  breaking-point,  and  the 
stock  must  be  of  such  a  nature  that  it  will  take,  without 
serious  injury,  the  impression  of  the  dies.  One  of  the  con- 
spicuous results  of  these  conditions  is,  frequently,  the  sub- 
stitution of  soft  steel  for  pieces  which  might  otherwise  be 
made  of  iron. 

There  is  a  distinction  between  the  classes  of  work  which 
are  usually  done  under  the  drop,  or  in  the  bending-machine. 
In  the  drop-dies,  the  particles  of  stock  are  generally  pressed 
together  very  closely,  while  the  operation  of  the  bending  tends 
to  strain  apart  those  on  the  outside  of  the  bend.  Most  any 
kind  of  stock  can  be  jammed  into  a  hole  in  a  drop-die,  but  the 
bar  bent  on  a  bending-machine  must  have  some  degree  of 
tenacity,  to  bend  without  cracking. 

Even  cold  shuts  will  close  so  completely  in  a  drop-die  that 
they  are  undiscoverable  until  the  piece  is  put  to  some  stress 
which  will  disclose  them.  Due  caution  must  therefore  be 
exercised  in  devising  drop  processes,  to  adopt  such  as  will 
insure  sound  forging.  Too  much  reliance  much  not  be 
placed  upon  fair  outsides. 

Whenever  it  becomes  necessary  to  place  dependence  upon 
uniting  stock  by  welding  in  drop-dies,  it  is  the  safest  way  to 
have  the  welding  done  at  the  first  blow.  The  parts  which  are 
forced  forward  to  be  united  at  the  second  blow  are  liable  to 
be  dry,  filmed  over,  and  unwelded. 

If  the  two,  or  more,  blows  are  to  be  struck  on  a  piece  at 
the  same  heat,  in  the  same  dies,  it  is  a  great  relief  to  the  dies 
to  at  least  loosen  the  piece  in  the  dies  the  instant  they  separate. 
This  proceeding  breaks  that  intimate  contact  between  the  hot 


200  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

piece  and  the  die,  which  affords  the  bridge  for  the  quick 
passage  of  the  heat  to  the  edges  of  the  impression,  which  it 
softens  and  makes  susceptible  to  injury.  It  does  not  require 
a  wide  separation  to  greatly  weaken  the  conducting  capacity 
of  actual  contact. 

When  it  is  found  that  the  drop-forgings  do  not  have  the 
strength  which  they  were  calculated  to  possess,  some  revision 
should  be  made  of  the  processes,  and  such  corrections  applied 
as  may  have  a  favorable  effect.  If  the  dies  are  properly  devised 
and  the  work  is  carefully  manipulated,  the  material  in  the 
drop-forging  can  be  brought  to  the  highest  degree  of  excel- 
lence which  such  stock  is  capable  of  possessing.  The  stock 
can  be  wrought  in  the  drop-dies  to  its  greatest  perfection  with- 
out much  injury  to  the  dies.  Stock  allowed  to  cool  from  a 
welding  heat,  with  no  work  done  upon  it  below  that  heat,  is 
very  far  from  being  in  the  best  condition. 

Improved  Anvil  Block 

There  is  nothing  which  makes  a  forge-room  so  untidy  in 
its  appearance  as  anvils  carelessly  placed  on  the  wooden  blocks. 
Even  those  secured  firmly  to  the  blocks  by  means  of  straps  of 
iron,  bolts  or  staples,  in  time  work  loose,  shift  about,  and 
frequently  fail  altogether.  To  hold  the  anvil  firmly,  to  have 
it  look  neat,  and  at  the  same  time  to  make  it  as  noiseless  as 
possible  when  in  use,  is  a  problem  demanding  much  thought 
and  experience. 

As  it  is  desired  to  use  wrought-iron  anvils  in  preference 
to  cast-iron,  several  experiments  have  been  made.  The  result 
is  that  two  blocks  are  now  in  use  in  the  forge-room:  one  is 
mounted  with  a  Trenton  and  one  with  a  Hey  &  Badden  anvil, 
both  being  wrought-iron  anvils.  These  are  satisfactory  in 
every  respect,  and  the  difficulty  in  holding  the  anvil  secure 
is  solved.  All  noise  and  vibration  when  the  anvil  is  struck 
are  stopped,  and  its  general  appearance  is  very  neat.  The 
anvil  is  made  fast  to  a  mass  of  concrete  (Fig.  196)  of  broken 
stone  and  cement  encased  in  a  rectangular  shaped  box  18 
inches  high,  made  of  cast  iron  fg  inch  thick,  with  a  base  14 


STEEL   AND    IRON!    THEIR   TREATMENT,    ETC. 


201 


x  18  inches  tapering  up  to  8  x  10  inches  at  the  top,  being 
1  inch  larger,  inside  measurement,  than  the  base  of  the  anvil. 
The  anvil,  as  stated,  rests  upon  the  concrete  2  inches  below 
the  top  of  the  casting.  On  each  side  (front  and  back)  of  the 
anvil,  embedded  in  the  concrete  to  the  depth  of  about  3  inches, 
is  a  bolt  and  nut,  the  nut  projecting  up  to  nearly  the  top  of 
the  casting,  and  about  1  inch  above  the  concrete.  On  the  top 
of  this  concrete  melted  lead  is  poured  (filling  up  this  space 


FIG.  196. — Improved  anvil  block. 

between  the  base  of  the  anvil  and  the  top  of  the  casting  about 
2  inches)  which  flows  all  round  the  anvil,  the  nut  of  the  bolt, 
and  into  the  corners  of  the  casting.  The  taper  of  the  casting, 
together  with  the  nut,  holds  the  lead  to  the  cement,  and  this, 
it  is  evident,  holds  the  anvil  firmly. 

Several  methods  have  been  thought  of,  such  as  having  the 
anvil  rest  on  a  box  of  sand,  mounted  on  wooden  and  concrete 
blocks  by  means  of  bands  of  iron,  hook-bolts,  staples,  etc. 


202  DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

All  these  devices  failed  to  give  the  result  desired.  It  was 
found  that  by  placing  1  inch  or  more  of  the  base  of  the  anvil 
in  a  tub  of  water,  it  lost  its  ringing  sound,  the  vibrations 
ceased  all  together  and  the  sound,  when  struck  with  a  hammer, 
was  dead,  so  to  speak,  as  much  as  the  so-called  noiseless  anvils 
made  of  cast  iron.  The  base  of  the  anvil  rests  on  the  con- 
crete, and  is  gripped  by  the  lead.  This  arrangement  stopped 
completely,  just  as  the  water  did,  all  vibrations.  The  cost  of 
this  method  of  mounting  anvils  should  exceed  but  little  the 
cost  of  the  anvils  mounted  in  the  usual  way  on  the  wooden 
blocks  with  straps  of  iron,  etc. 


CHAPTER  VII 

PRESS  AND  HAMMER  FORMING  OF  HEAVY  HOT  AND  COLD  BAR 
AND  SHEET  STOCK  IN  DIES,  TOGETHER  WITH  MANUFACTURE 
AND  ASSEMBLING  OF  FINISHED  PRODUCTS  FROM  SUCH 

Making  a  Wheelbarrow  Wheel 

WHEN  a  new  piece  is  to  be  produced  in  quantities,  and  the 
job  has  been  worked  through  carefully,  and  decisions  have 
been  made  on  all  the  operations,  tools,  and  fixtures  needful, 
then  it  is  sometimes  a  good  thing  to  forget  that  there  are  such 
tools  as  drillers,  lathes,  planers,  millers,  and  screw-machines, 
and  remember  squeezing  tools  alone. 

Some  things  cannot  be  made  by  pressing  and  punching, 
hot  or  cold;  but  really,  when  we  look  the  field  over  carefully, 
it  will  be  seen  that  almost  everything  can  be  made  of  sheet  or 
bar  stock,  in  some  forms  of  rolls  or  presses. 

For  a  big  thing,  a  wooden  freight-car  doesn't  look  at  first 
like  a  press  job,  and  for  a  little  thing  a  wooden  wheelbarrow 
wheel  doesn't  seem  exactly  fit  for  production  from  metal,  with 
not  a  cut  made  on  it. 

It  is  not  so  very  long  ago  since  the  pressed-steel  freight- 
car  became  an  established  production.  Metal  wheels  have 
been  made  for  many  years,  but  plenty  of  wooden  wheels  are 
still  used,  because  it  takes  a  long,  long  time  to  change  exist- 
ing practise,  even  when  the  new  thing  is  not  only  best  and 
cheapest  in  the  long  run,  but  is  the  lowest  in  first  cost  and  by 
far  the  most  durable  of  the  two. 

The  expert  machine  designer  should  not  let  habit  and 
custom  hinder  him  from  seeing  more  than  one  way  to  produce 
what  he  wants,  yet  he  often  does  take  the  handy  and  costly  way, 
because  it  is  the  way  he  knows  best,  and  because  others  have 
gone  the  same  way  for  a  similar  output.  It  is  easier  to  do 
what  has  been  done,  than  to  do  the  best  that  can  be  done,  and, 

203 


204 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


if  one  follows  the  old  way,  he  escapes  the  stigma  of  experi- 
ment, and  stands  on  the  safe  ground  of  established  practise 
and  conservative  engineering.  " Conservative  practise"  is  a 
fine  term,  fine  to  capitalists,  and  to  routine  followers,  and  when 
some  rule-breaking  experimenter  finds  new  and  better  ways 
of  doing  things,  then  conservative  practise  becomes  dear  in 
the  other  sense  of  the  word.  Sad  to  say  though,  some- 
times the  experimenter  does  not  come  out  right,  and  then 


FIG.  197. — Parts  of  wheel  ready  for  assembling. 


the  old-way  advocates  can  be  happy  and  say; 
so"  with  complacent  joy. 


'I  told  you 


Operations  on  Wheel 

The  parts  of  the  eight-spoke  metal  wheelbarrow  wheel  are 
shown  in  Fig.  197,  and  consist  of  the  cored  cast-iron  hub,  two 
hot-pressed  steel  flanges,  four  bent  spoke  parts,  two  spokes 
each,  eight  rivets  and  the  welded  wheel  rim. 

The  cast-iron  hub  calls  for  five  or  more  operations — 
making  the  core,  molding,  pouring,  tumbling,  and  spruing  on 
the  emery-wheel.  The  coring  length  and  outside  diameters 


FORMING    OF    HEAVY    STOCK    IN    DIES  20 S 

are  all  close  to  uniformity,  and  the  hub  and  side  flanges  and 
spokes  make  a  firmly  united  structure  after  they  are  assembled 
in  the  press,  before  riveting  (as  shown  in  Figs.  208  and  209), 
as  the  eyes  of  the  hub-flanges  are  forced  down  hard  on  the 
outside  of  the  hub. 

For  the  tire,  seven  operations  are  required — to  cut  it  off 
from  the  bar,  straighten,  punch  with  a  hole  for  each  spoke 
end,  six  or  eight  as  may  be,  and  two  rivet-holes  for  the  weld- 


FIG.  198. — Small  rim-bending  rolls. 

rivet,  which  insures  the  correct  tire  diameter;  insert  the  weld- 
rivet,  heat  and  weld,  and  finally  form  and  trim  on  a  round 
iron-block.  None  of  the  operations  on  the  wheelbarrow  tire 
are  shown,  as  larger  wheel  tires  were  in  work  the  day  the 
pictures  were  taken. 

The  tires  are  cut  off  in  the  press,  and  all  the  holes  are 
punched  at  once — square  holes  for  the  spoke  ends,  and  a 
round  end  for  the  welding-rivet.  Fig.  198  shows  the  little 
Moline  tire-bender,  three  rolls  open  at  the  right  hand,  one 
adjustable.  The  larger  tires  are  bent  in  a  larger  Moline 
machine,  Fig.  199,  having  the  adjustable  roll  carried  on  a 


206 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 


rectangular  gibbed  slide  at  the  left.  The  company  make 
wheels  up  to  54  inches  diameter,  with  rims  6  inches  wide,  and 
fit  them  with  two  sets  of  /^-section  spokes,  spread  at  the  base, 
and  extremely  substantial  in  construction,  to  carry  as  much  as 
3,000  pounds  load  per  wheel — an  entirely  different  affair  from 
this  simple  and  cheap  wheelbarrow  wheel. 

The  rims  are  heated  for  welding  in  the  natural-gas  fire, 
shown  in  Fig.  200.     This  is  a  fire-brick  pit,  not  very  wide, 


FIG.  199. — Larger  rim-bending  rolls. 

having  two  loose  fire-brick  sliding  covers,  raised  up  on  bricks 
2  or  3  inches  above  the  hearth  surface.  The  natural-gas  pipe 
is  at  the  left,  globe  valve  regulation,  and  the  tin  air-pipe  takes 
the  gas  at  the  top  bend,  above  the  flat  air-regulating  slide, 
fixed  in  position  with  the  thin  wooden  wedge  lying  on  top  of 
the  slide.  The  flame  was  shut  off  for  the  camera  exposure, 
but  the  pit  was  yet  red  hot.  The  two  fire-brick  covers  are 
made  each  of  two  bricks,  pierced  together  with  clamp-plates 


FORMING    OF    HEAVY    STOCK    IN    DIES  207 

and  bolts,  all  as  clearly  shown.  When  the  tires  are  to  be  put 
in  the  top  bricks  are  shoved  along  endwise,  and  shoved  back 
again  to  cover  the  tops  of  the  heating-ends,  and  the  fire  is  ex- 
tremely rapid  in  action. 

The  superintendent  was  very  loath  to  permit  a  picture  of 
this  simple,  cheap,  convenient,  and  most  effective  hearth  to  go 
out,  because  it  was  not  more  elaborated.  Like  everything  else 
in  this  shop,  this  fire  was  working  all  day  every  day  all  right, 


FIG.  200. — Natural  gas  fire  for  welding  tire. 

costing  next  to  nothing  in  fuel,  extremely  good  in  every  way, 
which  did  not  at  all  hinder  the  superintendent  from  wishing 
it  not  to  be  shown.  I,  on  the  other  hand,  regarded  the  fire 
as  a  model  construction,  very  difficult  to  cheapen  or  improve. 
The  rims  are  welded  on  horn-frame  " Justice"  spring-ham- 
mer, as  shown  in  Fig.  201.  The  top  spring  and  cranks  are 
covered  by  a  large  sheet-metal  case,  as  the  hammer  works  fast. 
The  hammer  works  only  a  few  seconds  on  each  weld,  and  the 


208  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 

tire  is  then  taken  by  the  helper,  who  trims  the  weld  a  very 
little  with  a  hand-hammer,  which  completes  the  welding. 

Welding  makes  the  rim  ready  for  the  spokes.  The  spokes 
are  made  two  in  one  piece,  of  oval  steel  rod,  cut  to  length,  and 
slabbed  on  the  sides  to  form  a  square  tenon  on  each  end  to  fit 
the  square  hole  punches  in  the  tire,  and  then  formed  V- 
shaped  in  the  press,  as  shown  in  Fig.  202.  There  are  four 
operations  on  the  spoke  Vy  only  one,  that  of  bending,  being 
illustrated.  First  the  spoke-blank  is  cut  to  length,  then 


FIG.  201. — Welding  wagon-wheel  rims  on  Justice  hammer. 

slabbed  on  one  end  at  a  time  for  the  square  tenon,  then  formed 
by  being  laid  on  top  of  the  V-horn  of  the  press  in  the  gages, 
which  are  of  the  same  thickness,  slotted  so  that  the  forming 
tool  in  the  press-slide  can  bend  both  ends  down  into  the  com- 
pleted form  shown  in  Fig.  197. 

The  spokes  are  riveted  into  the  tire  by  a  rapid  pneumatic 
riveter,  the  piston  being  crank-driven,  and  the  tool  being  a 
reproduction  of  the  flat  hand-hammer  peen,  turning  round  a 
little  between  blows.  The  spoke  tenons  are  inserted  in  the 


FORMING    OF    HEAVY    STOCK    IN    DIES  209 

rim  by  hand,  being  taken  one  at  a  time  from  the  rod  on  which 
they  hang  at  the  workman's  left,  and  then  one  spoke  is 
grabbed  in  the  press  fixture  vise  and  held  hard  by  a  long  cam 
lever,  all  as  clearly  shown  in  Fig.  203,  while  riveting  is  done. 
The  hammer  is  very  fast,  and  the  spoke  slides  down  an  inch 
or  so  while  the  riveting  is  done,  which  makes  no  difference  as 
the  atmospheric  hammer  follows  it  down  all  right.  Riveting 
completes  the  rim  and  spokes,  ready  for  assembling  the  entire 
wheel  by  adding  the  hub  and  side  at  the  center  of  the  bent 


FIG.  202. — Spoke-forming  press  and  tools. 

spokes  which  are  seen  in  the  row  of  wheels  on  the  floor  at  the 
left  in  Fig.  203,  and  also  in  the  pile  of  larger  diameter  wheels 
in  Fig.  204,  in  which  the  wheelbarrow  wheels  are  shown 
stacked  up  at  the  right. 

Making  the  Flanges 

The  flanges  call  for  eight  operations,  for  each  one  of  the 
pair,  blanking  and  piercing  with  a  small  central  hole,  then 
heating,  then  forming  and  cutting  the  central  hole  to  finished 


210  DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

diameter,  and  finally  piercing  the  flange  for  the  eight  rivets. 
It  will  be  noted  in  Fig.  197  that  the  cast-iron  hubs  have  a 
small  triangular  boss  on  one  side.  This  touches  both  flanges 
and  serves  to  locate  the  flanges  and  spokes  midway  of  the  hub 
length.  This  short  boss  might  have  taken  the  form  of  a 
circular  flange,  but  this  would  increase  the  weight  to  no 
advantage. 

The  flange-blanks  are  heated  to  dark-red  in  a  muffle  hav- 
ing a  bottom  of  broken  fire-brick,  kept  red  hot  by  a  natural 


FIG.  203. — Riveting  spokes  in  wheels.      Air-power  hammer. 

gas  and  air-pressure  fire,  same  general  arrangement  as  the 
welding  fire,  all  as  clearly  shown  in  Fig.  20 S,  attended  by  a 
youth  wearing  London  smoke  goggles,  who  places  the  blanks 
on  the  muffle  bottom  and  pulls  them  out  with  a  long,  slender, 
steel-rod  hooked  at  the  working-end,  always  keeping  one 
blank  heated  red  hot  on  the  sill  of  the  muffle-door  at  the  left, 
ready  to  be  taken  with  tongs  by  the  pressman,  who  sits  at  the 
right  of  the  press  on  a  cushioned  seat  shown  in  Fig.  206, 
which  shows  the  relative  locations  of  the  forming-press  and 
the  heating-muffle. 


FORMING    OF    HEAVY    STOCK    IN    DIES  211 

The  flange-forming  tools  are  shown  in  Fig.  207.  The 
central  plunger  is  spring-supported,  and  has  three  diameters  at 
the  top  end,  and,  I  think  must  have  a  first  size  for  the  two  to 
fit  the  blank  hole,  next  below  that  the  cutting  punch  coacting 
with  a  die  in  the  press  slide,  and  finally  a  straight  part  of  the 
plunger,  the  diameter  of  the  inside  of  the  flange-hub.  The 
hub  blank,  red  hot,  is  placed  on  top  of  the  spring  plunger,  the 
spring  being  stiff  enough  to  cause  the  cupping  of  the  hub 
before  the  plunger  can  be  forced  down;  next  in  the  press  slides 


FIG.  204. — Wheels  ready  for  hubs  and  flanges. 

downward  travel,  the  ribbed  die  closes  on  the  blank,  shaping 
the  flange  as  shown  in  Fig.  207.  Flange-piercing  follows,  to 
fit  the  hub  and  spokes,  and  finally  cutting  the  central  flange 
hole  to  finished  diameter  the  last  thing,  the  ring  chip  formed 
by  this  last  operation  going  up  through  the  press-slide  for 
escape.  I  am  not  sure  about  this  operation,  but  it  seems  the 
only  way,  as  the  hole  is  enlarged  and  all  the  forming  is  done 
at  one  operation. 

The  last  operation  on  the  flange  is  piercing  with  an  eight- 


212  DROP- FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 

punch  gang  die,  as  shown  in  Fig.  208.  This  brings  the  job 
to  the  assembler,  who  uses  a  press,  as  shown  in  Fig.  209,  first 
slipping  a  flange  on  an  end  of  one  of  the  hubs  seen  in  the  box 
at  the  left  of  Fig.  209,  and  then  standing  the  hub  upright  in 
the  bolster-die,  and  next  laying  the  wheel-spoke  inside  ends 
in  the  flanges  hard  on  the  hub,  everything  being  adjusted  so 
that  the  descent  of  the  press-slide  forces  the  flanges  hard  on 
the  hub  and  closes  them  hard  on  the  spokes,  ready  for  rivet- 


FIG.  205. — Heating  flanges  in  muffle,  using  natural  gas. 

ing,  as  shown  in  Fig.  210,  taken  from  the  pile  of  work  at  the 
right-hand  of  the  assembling-press. 

I  do  not  recall  the  placing  of  the  eight  flange  rivets,  but 
think  they  are  all  headed  down  at  one  squeeze  of  the  press,  as 
the  rivets  are  not  very  big. 

The  work  is  all  very  close  and  good,  the  fits  are  excellent, 
and  the  press-work  gaging  is  very  exact,  as  is  shown  by  the 
symmetry  of  the  spoke  V  in  Fig.  197,  and  by  the  accurate 


FORMING    OF    HEAVY    STOCK    IN    DIES  213 

centering  of  the  wheel-spokes  in  Figs.  203  and  204.  Fig. 
210  also  bears  witness  to  the  excellent  fitting  of  the  rough 
parts,  and  Fig.  204  shows  exactly  flush  with  the  tire  outside 
the  spoke  tenon  rivet.  The  completed  wheel  is  very  strong 
and  very  durable,  and  is  really  a  miracle  of  construction 
when  one  stops  to  consider  the  number  of  operations  the  plant 
employed  and  the  price  per  pound  the  work  is  sold  for. 

Supposing  that  steel-bars  and  gray  iron-castings  cost  the 
Wheel  Company   1^  cents  a  pound,  then  the  stock  in  an 


FIG.  206. — Wheel-flange,  muffle  and  forming-press. 

8  X -pound  wheel  would  stand  for  pretty  nearly  15  cents,  leav- 
ing 12  cents  out  of  the  27  cents  selling  price  to  cover  all 
expenses  of  performing  the  29  principal  operations  required 
to  produce  the  wheel,  maintain  the  plant,  and  market  the 
product. 

I  think  I  could  easily  make  the  plant  of  the  Wheel  Com- 
pany's main  floor  cost  $1,000  more  than  it  cost  at  first,  with 
the  sanction  of  the  majority  of  toolmakers  educated  in  New 


214 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


England.  I  don't  think  I  could  cheapen  the  cost  of  the 
wheelbarrow  wheels  by  increasing  the  cost  of  the  plant.  If  I 
could  not,  I  should  certainly  throw  away  whatever  I  put  into 
the  plant  " betterment, "  which  would  not  be  a  betterment  at 
all,  but  worse  than  a  dead  waste,  because  the  earnings  must 
pay  interest  on  it  forever. 


FIG.  207. — Flange-forming  tools. 

There  are  plenty  of  chances  to  think  about  things  in  the 
27-cent  wheelbarrow  wheel  job. 

Pressed  Steel  Gears 

An  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  gears  has  been 
devised  by  Messrs.  Ulrich  and  Fred  L.  Eberhardt,  of  Newark, 
N.  J.  The  gears  are  primarily  designed  for  street-car  serv- 
ices, being  made  in  halves  for  ready  and  easy  clamping  upon 
the  axle  or  removal  and  renewal  when  necessary.  Steel-cast- 


FORMING    OF    HEAVY    STOCK    IN    DIES 


21$ 


ings  have  been  widely  used  for  this  purpose,  but  not  with  per- 
fect success,  and  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  the  present 
gears  will  prove  to  be  superior. 

The  blank  for  each  half-gear  consists  of  a  weldless  steel- 
ring,  Figs.  211  to  213.  Each  ring  is  shaped  by  pressure  in 
suitable  dies,  being  flattened  down  upon  one  side,  the  hub 


FIG.  208. — Punching  eight  rivet-holes  in  flanges. 

being  shaped  at  the  same  time,  until  the  perfect  shape  for  the 
half-gear  is  secured. 

How  Metal  Wheels  are  Made 

When  we  think  of  machinery  it  pictures  itself  in  shining 
surfaces,  as  though  a  large  proportion  of  the  machines  in  the 
world  were  of  high  finish,  like  watches  and  some  marine 
engines.  It  is  not  correct.  The  greater  portion  of  the  work 
which  is  done  in  the  world  by  machinery  is  done  by  rough 
machines.  Much  of  this  class  of  machinery  is  portable,  goes 
on  wheels,  on  the  ground.  Not  much  comment  does  it  get 


216 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 


in  the  journals  which  are  the  vehicles  of  mechanical  intelli- 
gence; but  its  progress  merits  occasional  notice. 

A  change  has  taken  place  in  the  past  fifteen  years  in  the 
material  of  which  many  wheels  are  made.  It  was  wood;  it  is 
now  steel.  As  the  utility  and  availability  of  metal  wheels 
became  more  widely  known  the  demand  for  them  increased. 
Large  manufactories,  equipped  with  the  most  advanced  tools 
and  methods,  have  been  established  in  the  West,  and  annually 


FIG.  209. — Assembling  flanges  and  hub  with  spokes  and  rim. 

consume  for  their  product  thousands  of  tons  of  steel.  The 
strength,  durability,  and  cheapness  of  metal  wheels  have  made 
the  manufacture  of  some  machines  profitable  which  would  not 
have  been  on  the  market  if  these  wheels  had  not  been  availa- 
ble. The  wheels  are  made  in  commercial  quantities  for  a 
great  variety  of  machines:  baling  presses,  binder  master  wheels, 
binder  grain  wheels,  corn  and  other  planting  machines,  corn 
shellers,  cultivators,  farm  trucks,  grain-drills,  hay-rakes,  ted- 


FORMING    OF    HEAVY    STOCK    IN    DIES 


217 


ders  and  loaders,  horse-powers,  plows,  portable  engines,  road 
graders,  threshers,  separators,  and  wheelbarrows.  A  drawback 
to  the  profitableness  of  manufacture  would  appear  to  be  this 
great  variety;  for  every  different  kind  of  wheel  is  a  separate 
article  of  manufacture.  Every  variety  also  requires  a  change 
of  some  kind  in  the  manufacturing,  and  every  change  takes 
time  and  costs  money. 

The  dimensions  of  the  tire  vary  all  the  way  from  1 5  inches 
in  width  to   1 J^  .  inches,  with  thickness  from   ^   inch  to  $ 


FIG.  210. — Ready  to  go  to  the  riveting-press. 

inch,  each  width  with  any  thickness,  and  each  thickness  with 
any  width.  The  tires  are  not  all  flat;  some  variations  of  form 
have  names,  such  as  half-oval,  channeled,  ribbed,  concave, 
and  some  shapes  are  nameless.  The  possibilities  of  cutting 
any  tire  to  any  length  extends  the  variety.  And  the  variations 
are  not  so  much  in  the  tire  as  in  the  size,  shape,  length,  and 
number  of  the  spokes,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are 


218  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

fastened,  and  also  in  the  different  forms,  sizes,  and  complica- 
tions of  the  design  in  the  hub,  which,  formerly  satisfied  with 
two  parts,  the  spoke-shell  and  the  spindle-box,  are  now  more 
involved  since  roller  bearings  have  come  into  use. 

From  hub  to  tire  the  wheel  is  the  prey  of  innovation.  It 
is  always  liable  to  have  some  new  thing  put  on  it  anywhere, 
even  outside  of  the  tire.  The  motor  wheel  of  an  agricultural 
machine  must  turn  around,  for  if  it  slides  on  the  ground  the 
mechanism  is  inactive.  Therefore  these  wheels  are  provided 
with  spurs  which  settle  into  the  ground  and  prevent  sliding. 
These  spurs  are  attached  to  the  tire,  are  of  many  forms  and 


FIG.  211. — Pressed-steel  gear. 

attached  in  many  different  ways.  In  a  single  metal-wheel 
manufactory  there  are  made  no  less  than  1,500  different  styles 
of  wheels. 

Wheel  Tire  Making 

The  principal  form  of  corn-planter  wheel  tire  was  for  some 
time  that  shown  in  Fig.  214.  It  was  5  inches  wide  and  from 
I/Q  inch  to  %  inch  thick.  The  concave  was  $6  inch  deep. 
Not  more  than  twenty  years  ago  I  took  a  day  on  purpose  to 
see  them  welded  under  a  trip-hammer.  These  were  heated 
by  a  hard-coal  furnace  under  the  narrow  cap  which  projected 
over  the  slotted  top,  through  which  the  flames  were  driven  on 


FORMING    OF    HEAVY    STOCK    IN    DIES 


219 


to  the  tire.  It  was  a  good  arrangement  for  the  time,  but  the 
tires  are  welded  ten  times  as  fast  now  by  the  use  of  electricity 
and  other  later  improvements. 

A  binder  master-wheel  tire  had  a  cross  section  like  Fig. 
216.  It  was  9  inches  wide  after  bending  the  flanges  down  1  fo 
inches,  and  was  ^  inch  thick.  Another  binder  main-wheel 
tire  is  shown  in  Fig.  217.  It  is  9  inches  wide,  fV  inch 
thick  in  the  middle,  and  the  sides  are  TV  inch  thick.  The 
wheel  is  about  3  X  feet  m  diameter.  A  favorite  form  of  culti- 
vator tire  is  half  oval,  as  in  Fig.  215,  1^  and  •&  inch  thick 
in  the  center.  When  they  were  made  by  hand  it  was  more 
convenient  for  welding  to  have  them  of  flat  cross-section,  but 
when  they  are  welded  in  dies  the  shape  of  the  cross-section  is 


FIG.  212. — Pressed-steel  gear  sections. 

of  little  consequence,  as  the  dies  can  be  made  to  weld  one 
form  as  well  as  another. 

Many  corn-planter  wheels  are  now  made  with  double  tires 
and  open  centers.  Fig.  219  shows  the  cross-section  of  the  two 
tires  riveted  to  the  spoke.  They  are  2  inches  x  %  inch,  and 
some  800  is  a  day's  work  at  welding  them  into  flat  tires  30 
inches  in  diameter.  They  must  be  well  united,  for  when  they 
are  cold  they  are  put  in  the  dies  of  a  hydraulic  tire  shrinker 
and  the  six  jaws  close  around  them  with  a  forty  bear-power 
hug,  and  in  some  fraction  of  a  minute  one  edge  of  the  tire  has 
been  contracted  so  that  one  side  of  the  tire  is  an  inch  and  a  half 
less  in  diameter  than  the  other.  That  side  of  the  bar  has  been 
contracted  nearly  five  inches. 


220 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


One  would  suppose  such  an  expenditure  of  force  would 
produce  quite  sensible  heat,  but  when  it  is  felt  for  with  the 
bare  hand  there  is  found  so  little  heat  that  it  requires  faith  to 
perceive  that  there  is  any.  Nor  is  any  heat  developed  in  the 
machine,  although  the  operation  is  repeated  every  two  min- 
utes, as  it  compresses  300  a  day.  This  is  not  a  case  for  com- 
parison between  machine  work  and  that  done  by  hand,  and  no 
comparison  can  be  instituted.  If  machinery  was  not  available 
these  wheels  would  not  be  made.  These  tires,  which  have  to 
be  compressed  after  welding,  are  now  punched  as  the  first 

operation  upon  them. 

The  multiple  punch 
displays  its  advantages  by 
punching  all  the  holes  in 
some  tires  at  one  stroke. 
There  are  eight  holes  in 
a  cultivator  tire,  and  it 
punches  1,200  tires  a  day. 
The  tire  shown  in  Fig. 
214  has  twenty  holes, 
there  being  two  rolls  of 
spokes  with  ten  spokes  in 
each  row.  These  holes 
are  punched  on  a  com- 
mon punch-press,  the  dies  of  which,  however,  are  so  made 
that  they  punch  four  holes  at  a  stroke  and  with  this  arrange- 
ment upward  of  ISO  tires  are  punched  daily. 

When  one  machine  does  a  lot  of  work  a  lot  of  work  stops 
when  it  stops.  For  instance:  Once  there  was  a  multiple 
punch,  punching  five  holes  %  inch  diameter  through  steel  % 
inch  thick.  Now,  it  is  easy  to  vary  the  length  of  the 
punches  a  little,  so  that  the  whole  strain  may  not  come  at  once, 
but  it  was  not  thought  that  the  punch  needed  humoring,  al- 
though the  shear  strain  was  about  equal  to  punching  a  hole  3 
inches  diameter.  There  had  been  foul  work  on  the  punch 
before,  and  there  was  known  to  be  a  slight  crack  in  one  of  the 
uprights.  This  time  came  a  bar  which  was  as  hard  as  though 


FIG.   213. — Pressed-steel  gear. 


FORMING    OF    HEAVY    STOCK    IN    DIES 


221 


it  had  been  hardened.  It  was  the  first  time  to  decide  the 
question  whether  the  machine  would  stall  or  break,  and  the 
balance-wheel  did  not  stop  to  give  the  question  any  consider- 
ation. There  was  quite  a  loud  report;  no  very  great  disorder. 


214 


215 


216 


217 


221 
FIGS.  214  to  221. — Details  of  metal  wheels. 

The  upright  simply  let  go  and  the  upper  part  raised  up 
enough  to  permit  the  revolution  of  the  eccentric,  and  the 
machine  was  thoughtfully  thrown  out  of  gear.  The  balance- 
wheel  came  to  rest  after  a  while,  and  when  the  new  upright 
came  and  was  set  up,  no  one  would  know  anything  had  ever 


222  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

happened,  except  for  the  pile  of  work  that  was  behind  hand  to 
prove  that  a  machine  that  can  do  such  work  can  stay  working. 

Perhaps  nothing  could  give  a  better  idea  of  the  amount  of 
time  that  is  void  of  visible  product  than  the  output  of  some 
machine  which  makes  regular  strokes,  and  makes  a  piece  at 
every  stroke  if  the  work  is  fed  to  it.  Of  this  kind  are  the 
bolt  machines,  used  for  making  the  collar-head  end  of  the 
spoke  which  is  to  be  riveted  in  the  tire.  They  can  head  a 
spoke  at  every  stroke  and  run  36,000  strokes  a  day,  and  17,- 
000  spokes  a  day  is  the  very  best  day's  work  that  has  been 
done  on  one,  although  when  everything  is  in  good  running 
order  every  stroke  is  easily  caught.  The  fuel  is  gas,  the  fire 
constant  and  uniform,  and  a  pair  of  well-hardened  dies  of  good 
steel  will  last  half  a  day  without  changing.  Open  hearth  steel 
is  used  for  spokes  exclusively,  after  years  of  experiment,  as 
its  uniformity  can  be  depended  on. 

One  successful  process  of  making  metal  wheels  is  the  prep- 
aration of  the  tire  by  punching  the  spoke-holes  and  bending 
the  malleable-iron  hubs  hot,  with  a  machine  that  throws  out 
a  collar  outside  of  the  hub  at  the  same  time  that  it  rams  up  a 
head  in  a  recess  on  the  inside.  These  machines  head  several 
thousand  spokes  in  the  hubs  in  a  day,  from  six  to  twenty 
spokes  in  a  hub.  The  rims  or  tires  are  then  put  on,  and  the 
spokes  are  riveted  in  them  cold,  by  riveting-machines.  They 
can  pass  into  the  adjuster's  hands,  who  takes  the  kinks  out  of 
them  so  that  the  lap  of  the  tire  fits  for  the  welder.  They  are 
heated  on  a  gas  furnace  for  welding.  It  has  three  fires  attached 
to  a  central  standard,  around  which  they  are  revolved  as 
wanted.  When  a  tire  is  at  a  welding  heat,  the  fire  is  holding 
it  where  it  can  be  conveniently  lifted  out  and  dropped  on  the 
die  of  the  welding-hammer.  The  spark  shield  is  instantly  in 
place,  and  the  quick  running-hammer  makes  the  weld,  while 
the  operator  moves  the  tire  to  receive  the  blows  to  the  best 
advantage.  The  wheel  is  then  handed  to  the  trimmer  while 
the  welder  places  another  tire  in  the  furnace  and  swings  it 
away,  bringing  the  tire  that  is  hot  into  its  place.  Some  of  the 
light  tires  are  welded  at  the  rate  of  two  in  a  minute,  and  some 


FORMING    OF    HEAVY    STOCK    IN    DIES  223 

on  wheels  that  weigh  375  pounds  each  require  as  much  as  five 
minutes  to  a  weld.  The  trimmer  trims  off  any  fins  that  may 
have  raised,  and  trues  up  around  the  weld.  The  spindle-boxes 
are  very  forcibly  set  in  the  hubs  after  the  tires  are  welded. 
The  hubs  thus  being  reinforced  are  prevented  from  being 
cracked  by  the  strain.  A  general  inspection  and  truing  up 
follows  and  completes  the  process. 

The  spurs  are  sometimes  pieces  of  malleable  iron  which 
are  put  on  the  outside  of  the  tire,  from  one  spoke  to  another, 
diagonally  across  on  a  double-spoked  binder-wheel.  The  ends 
of  the  spokes  pass  through  and  rivet  the  spurs  on  with  the 
tire.  Setting  them  anew  is  supposed  to  prevent  the  wheel 
from  sliding  sidewise  on  a  side-hill.  Some  malleables  are 
made  that  form  a  rib  around  the  center  and  spurs  on  each  side. 
Some  tires  have  the  rib  rolled  on,  as  shown  in  Fig.  218.  It  is 
4  inches  wide  and  ^2  inch  thick.  On  narrow  wheels  a  form 
of  spur  is  used,  shown  in  Fig.  220.  The  shoulder  is  about  1  y2 
inches  square,  and  the  spur  an  inch  high.  The  split  shank  is 
easily  riveted  into  holes  punched  for  the  purpose  between 
spokes  and  spaced  about  5  inches  apart.  A  30-inch  wheel 
with  tier  3*^  x  fV  had  lugs  punched  free  on  three  sides  and 
bent  up,  as  shown  in  Fig.  221. 

Three  traction  engines  recently  sent  to  Cuba  had  driving- 
wheels  built  of  steel-plate  by  the  manufacturers  of  the  engines. 
They  weighed  3  y*  tons  each,  or  the  pair  to  each  engine  weighed 
7  tons.  They  were  8  feet  in  diameter  and  2  feet  face.  Each  had 
36  lugs,  4  inches  wide,  1^  inches  thick,  riveted  diagonally  on 
the  tire  and  extending  the  full  width  of  the  wheel.  Contrary 
to  general  practise,  the  spaces  occupied  by  the  lugs  were  greater 
than  the  spaces  between  them,  which  would  indicate  that  they 
were  designed  as  much  to  protect  the  1^-inch  steel  tire  as  to 
improve  the  traction.  The  front  wheels  also  were  built  up  of 
steel-plate.  They  were  five  feet  in  diameter  and  1  $  inches  face. 
The  weight  of  each  engine  was  25  tons.  They  were  to  be  used 
for  transporting  sugar-cane.  The  wheels  on  the  wagons  they 
were  to  draw  on  public  roads  were  6  feet  diameter,  13  inches 
face;  hub,  12  inches  long;  double  row  of  spokes  cast  into 


224 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


hub  and  bolted  to  tire;  spokes,  3  x  Y^  inch  steel.  A  few  of 
these  traction  engines  rolling  along  the  paths  of  industrial 
progress  would  have  a  weighty  influence  in  settling  that 
commotional  isle. 

Steel  Wheels 

Steel  wheels  for  use  under  various  agricultural  implements, 
engines,  etc.,  have  within  the  past  few  years  almost  entirely 


FIG.  222. — Punching  holes  for  the  spokes. 

superseded  the  wood  wheels — both  those  with  wood  and  those 
with  iron  hubs.  This  has  been  due  to  the  demand  for  a  wheel 
that  would  withstand  the  heat  of  the  sun  as  well  as  that  of  a 
steam-boiler.  The  immense  number  of  such  wheels  used  has 
made  it  necessary  to  provide  improved  machinery  and  to 
adopt  systematic  methods  for  their  manufacture.  Any  factory 
using  such  wheels  can  well  afford  to  do  this,  if  not  less  than 


FORMING    OF    HEAVY    STOCK    IN    DIES 


225 


three  or  four  hundred  are  wanted  per  year.  The  manufacture 
of  such  wheels  may  not  be  in  the  line  of  machine-work,  but 
the  construction  of  the  necessary  tools  and  appliances  and  the 
manner  of  using  them  may  be  useful  and  interesting  to  some 
of  my  readers. 

Fig.  226  shows  the  elements  of  a  wheel  of  which  a  large 
number  have  been  used,  yet  one  which  is  not  satisfactory. 


FIG.  223. — Rim  and  spokes  of  wheel  as  they  come  from  machine. 

The  spokes,  having  no  collar  on  the  inside  of  the  rim,  and 
being  fastened  to  the  hub  by  nuts,  as  shown,  are  continually 
working  loose.  This  wheel  is  also  very  expensive. 

Fig.  222  shows  the  outlines  of  a  riveting  and  punching 
machine  used  in  this  work.  Fig.  223  represents  the  rim  and 
spokes  of  a  wheel  as  they  come  from  this  machine. 

Fig.  224  shows  an  enlarged  section  of  the  rim  with  the 


226 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


spokes  in  place,  one  of  which  is  riveted  and  the  other  to  be 
riveted. 

Commencing  at  the  beginning  of  the  various  operations, 
we  will  follow  the  wheel  through  to  a  finish. 

The  tire,  or  rim,  as  we  shall  call  it,  is  first  cut  to  length, 
bent  and  welded  in  the  usual  way,  after  which  the  various 
improved  methods  and  tools  come  into  use.  No  attention  is 
paid  in  the  first  operation  to  having  the  rim  exact  as  to  diam- 
eter. It  is  placed  in  a  hydraulic  tire-setting  machine  (bought 
and  used  primarily  for  setting  tires  on  wooden  wheels),  where 
it  is  forced  to  size  and  made  practically  a 
true  circle.  This  operation  is  completed  in 
less  than  five  minutes. 

The  next  operation  consists  in  punching 
the  holes  for  the  spokes,  which  is  done  in 
the  machine  shown  in  Fig.  222.  It  will  be 
noticed  by  Fig.  224  that  the  holes  are  ta- 
pered. The  taper  is  obtained  by  using  a  die 
with  a  hole  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  large 
end  of  the  hole,  the  punch  being  the  same 
as  the  small  end  of  the  hole;  or,  perhaps,  to 
make  my  meaning  clearer,  we  use  a  die  as 
much  larger  than  the  punch  as  the  taper 
desired  plus  the  clearance  usually  used  with 
punches  and  dies. 

The  rim  is  first  placed  in  the  machine,  as 
shown  by  dotted  lines  x  x,  and  as  the  holes  are  staggered,  the 
spacer  (not  shown)  is  set  for  one-half  of  the  total  number  of 
holes  required,  and,  to  complete  the  operation,  the  rim  is 
turned  over  to  punch  the  other  half.  The  spokes  are  cut 
the  proper  length,  allowance  being  made  for  material  to  form 
the  collar  shown.  This  is  done  in  an  ordinary  bolt-header,  the 
other  end  being  flattened  by  a  blow  from  a  small  trip-hammer. 
The  spokes  and  rim  are  now  ready  to  go  to  the  riveter. 
This  machine  is  supplied  with  a  stand  C,  on  which  is  mounted 
a  casting  Z),  which  is  slotted,  as  shown  at  B.  This  slot  re- 
ceives the  spoke  and  holds  it  in  proper  position  for  riveting. 


FIG.  224.— En- 
larged section 
of  rim. 


FORMING    OF    HEAVY    STOCK    IN    DIES 


227 


A  wheel  rim  is  shown  in  place,  with  spoke  A  riveted  and  B  in 
position.  The  ram  of  the  machine  is  supplied  with  a  flat 
end  punch  of  considerably  larger  diameter  than  the  hole  in  the 
rim.  A  heating  furnace  is  placed  convenient  to  the  operator. 
Suspended  over  the  center  of  the  rim  is  an  air-lift.  The  die 
for  receiving  the  spoke  is  split  and  connected,  as  shown  at 
Fig.  225  by  a  steel  spring  (not  shown  on  Fig.  222).  This 
spring  is  used  to  enable  the  operator  to  handle  the  die  easily 
and  to  open  it  automatically,  when  the  rim  with  the  riveted 
spoke  is  lifted  to  be  turned  round  to  secure  another  spoke. 
After  every  alternate  spoke  is  thus  riveted,  the  rim  is  turned 
over  and  the  operation  is  finished.  The 
die  has  a  cavity  for  receiving  the  collar  on 
the  spoke,  keeping  it  in  good  shape  while 
the  end  is  forced  to  fill  the  taper-hole. 

This  method  of  connecting  the  rim 
and  spoke  is,  I  think,  the  best  that  can  be 
devised.  The  rim  and  spokes  thus  put 
together  are  shown  by  Fig.  223,  as  they 
appear  when  ready  to  receive  the  hub. 

In  the  operation  of  riveting  the  spokes 
into  the  rim,  the  workman  takes  a  spoke 
from  the  furnace  with  his  left  hand,  hold- 
ing the  die  in  his  right.  Closing  it  over  the  spoke,  he 
places  the  other  end  of  the  spoke  in  the  slot  of  the  false  hub, 
at  the  same  time  placing  the  die  in  position.  After  releasing 
it,  he  adjusts  the  rim  in  position,  so  that  the  spoke  will  enter 
the  hole,  holding  the  spoke  firmly  in  the  slot  of  the  false  hub 
with  the  left  hand  and  operating  the  valve  with  his  right. 
The  valve  and  lever  are  not  shown.  The  piston  may  be  oper- 
ated with  steam  or  compressed  air.  In  this  case  air  was  used. 

Early  History  of  Chain-Making 

Just  when  chains  were  first  made  is  uncertain,  because  the 
word  has  meant  almost  any  kind  of  connection.  Thousands 
of  years  ago  rings  of  metal  were  made  and  fastened  to  cloth, 
thus  making  chain  armor.  Later,  rings  were  joined  together 


FIG.  225.— Spring 

clamp   for 

spokes. 


228 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


by  other  metal  rings,  and  this  was  the  first  metal  chain.  Ap- 
parently chains  were  used  more  as  ornaments  than  anything 
else  up  to  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  years  ago,  al- 
though occasional  patents  have  been  issued  during  the  past 
two  hundred  and  seventy-five  years.  The  first  patent  the 
author  has  knowledge  of  was  issued  in  England  in  1634  and 
described  as  follows: 

"A  Way  for  the  Mearing  of  Shipps  with  Iron  Chaynes  by 
finding  out  the  True  Heating,  Ppaeing  and  Temping  of 
lyron  for  that  Ppose,  and  that  he  hath  nowe  attayned  to  the 
True  Use  of  the  said  Chaynes  and  that  the  same  wilbe  for  the 

great  saveing  of  cordage  and 
Safety  of  Shipps,  and  will  re- 
dound to  the  Good  of  our 
Common  Wealth." 

A  New    Method   of  Making 

J  o 

Weldless  Chains 

The  weldless  chain,  in 
the  form  of  the  common 
plunger's  or  "safety"  chain, 
is  a  familiar  article.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  devised  origi- 
nally by  the  inventor  of  the 
first  watchman's  time  detector 
as  the  means  of  fastening  the 
various  keys  used  in  the  system,  scattered  at  different  points 
about  the  premises.  A  chain  of  this  sort  can  only  be  "un- 
raveled" from  one  end,  and  if  that  end  is  sealed  with  the 
image  and  superscription  of  the  owner,  the  task  of  deception 
is  a  difficult  one. 

Iron  chains  of  large  sizes  have  been  made  on  the  same 
principle,  but  more  for  reason  of  strength  and  ease  of  making 
than  for  safety.  It  is  a  point  gained  when  the  weld  of  the 
ordinary  chain-link  is  avoided,  since  its  strength  can  never  be 
prophesied  beforehand,  and  the  whole  chain,  in  the  words  of 
the  common  proverb,  is  "no  stronger  than  its  weakest  link." 


FIG.  226. — Complete  detail 
of  construction. 


FORMING    OF    HEAVY    STOCK    IN    DIES 


229 


As  such  chains  have  hitherto  been  made,  however,  it  has 
always  been  necessary  to  make  the  opening  in  the  outer  link 
long  enough  to  admit  the  next  link  to  be  added  to  the  chain. 
While  this  elongated  link  does  very  well  on  sheet-metal  plum- 
ber's chain,  it  is  a  source  of  weakness  in  chains  of  wrought 
iron  or  steel,  of  large  sizes,  intended  to  support  large  loads. 
When  such  a  chain  passes  over  a  sheave  or  around  a  sprocket, 
the  bending  stresses  set  up  in  the  long  links  quickly  deform 
them  and  spoil  the  chain.  The  object  of  the  invention  of  a 
Hungarian — Stefan  Kiss  v.  Ecseghy,  by  name — is  to  make 


FIG.  227.— Details  of  new  short  stiff-link  chain. 

it  possible  to  produce  chains  of  this  kind  with   very  short, 
stiff  links. 

The  shape  of  the  chain  is  shown  in  Fig.  227.  As  will  be 
seen,  each  link  is  double,  being  formed  of  two  loops  being 
split.  The  method  of  forming  the  chain  is  shown  in  Fig. 
228.  The  secret  of  the  process  is  shown  in  the  first  operation. 
Fig,  227,  at  Z),  shows  a  complete  link,  and  A  the  blank  from 
which  a  new  link  is  to  be  formed.  As  will  be  seen,  this  is 
made  of  stock  somewhat  larger  than  the  size  of  the  chain,  re- 
duced in  its  central  portion  to  that  size.  These  blanks  may  be 
made  by  drop-forging  rolling  or  any  other  commercially  suit- 
able method.  One  of  them  is  heated  in  the  forge  and  inserted 
in  the  end  of  the  already  completed  portion  of  the  chain,  as 
shown.  The  ends  are  then  struck  up  under  dies  to  the  shape 


230 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


shown  in  operation  2,  where  E  is  the  end  of  the  finished  chain, 
and  B  the  new  link  being  formed.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
hole  in  the  old  link  is  but  slightly  larger  than  the  diameter  of 
the  stock  composing  the  new  one,  while  the  new  half  links  in 
the  end  are  of  considerably  greater  size.  It  would  evidently 
be  impossible  to  insert  them  if  they  were  formed  before  inser- 
tion, hence  the  process  of  inserting  the  blank  first  and  form- 


FIG.  228.— Dies  for  forming  chain,  Fig.  227. 

ing  it  afterward.  This  is  the  vital  principle  of  the  patent. 
As  shown  in  the  third  operation,  the  ends  are  next  bent 
around  to  form  the  new  complete  link,  which  is  thus  made 
ready  for  the  insertion  of  the  next  blank. 

Dies  for  Weldkss  Chain 

Fig,  229  shows  the  dies  used  for  doing  this  work.  The 
press  shown  is  of  a  type  common  in  Europe,  though  seldom, 
if  ever,  seen  in  this  country.  The  two  friction-wheels  on  the 


FORMING   OF    HEAVY   STOCK.   IN    DIES 


231 


horizontal  driving-shaft  may  either  of  them  be  shifted  to 
engage  the  rim  of  the  heavy  balance-wheel  attached  to 
the  vertical  screw.  The  screw  raises  and  lowers  the  ram  of 
the  press.  The  operator  controls  the  friction-wheels  by  the 


FIG.  229. — Screw-press  with  friction  fly-wheel  used  in 
chain-making. 

handle  shown,  or  by  the  treadle  at  the  base  of  the  machine. 
A  stop  on  the  ram  automatically  throws  out  the  disk  control- 
ling the  elevating  motion,  and  stops  the  ram  at  the  upper 
limit. 

The  dies  used  in  this  press  are  shown  in  Fig.  228.     With 


232  DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

this  arrangement,  three  operations  are  necessary  for  the  form- 
ing of  the  completed  link,  these  operations  corresponding  to 
those  shown  in  Fig.  227,  The  complete  portion  of  the  chain  is 
suspended  over  a  pulley  from  the  ceiling  with  the  free  end  in 
the  easy  reach  of  the  operator  of  the  machine.  A  heated  bank 
of  the  link  shown  in  Fig.  227,  operation  1,  is  taken  from  the 
forge,  inserted  through  the  link,  and  placed  in  dies  C  C  on 
the  bed  of  the  press.  Ram  Z),  shown  best  in  the  small  detail 
at  the  lower  left-hand  corner,  is  then  brought  down  on  the 
link,  flattening  out  the  ends  and  curving  the  central  portion. 
The  plunger  is  raised  again,  the  link  is  moved  forward  to  dies 
E  E,  and  the  plunger  is  again  brought  down.  The  die  at  E  is 
compound,  and  punch  F  above  it,  descending  on  the  work, 
forms  the  rounded  half  links  on  the  end  of  the  blank,  punches 
the  hole,  and  trims  off  the  periphery  of  the  work. 

The  ram  of  the  press  is  raised  for  a  third  time,  and  the 
now  completely  formed  (but  still  open)  link  is  moved  to  the 
bending-dies  at  G  G.  When  the  ram  of  the  press  is  brought 
down  on  the  work  at  this  point,  after  smoothing  the  work 
under  the  pressing  action  of  punch  H,  pins  //are  pushed  in 
by  the  operator,  entering  holes  in  links  R  R,  which  are  then 
in  position  to  receive  them.  Of  the  two  parts,  G,  the  one  at 
the  left  in  the  left-hand  view,  is  fastened  to  the  holder  integral 
with  ring  K,  while  the  other  one  is  supported  in  a  similar 
manner  from  ring  L.  These  two  rings  are  free  to  rock  about 
each  other  and  about  the  pivot  M,  formed  in  the  bracket 
casting  TV,  attached  to  the  bed  of  the  machine.  A  tie-bar  O, 
keyed  on  the  base  P,  serves  to  support  the  overhanging  pivot 
M  of  bracket  N.  A  support  not  shown  in  the  cut  extends 
out  over  the  finished  portion  of  the  chain  through  which  the 
new  link  passes,  and  supports  it  against  the  upward  -pressure 
of  the  bending  operation  which  now  takes  place.  When  the 
ram  of  the  press  is  started  upward,  links  R  attached  to  it,  draw 
after  them  die-holders  Q  Q,  which  rock  as  described  about  the 
axis  of  pivot  M.  By  this  means  the  link  is  bent  finally  into 
its  complete  form,  as  shown  in  operation  D  of  Fig.  227. 

The  half-tone,  Fig.  229,  shows  three  operators.     This  is 


FORMING    OF    HEAVY    STOCK    IN    DIES  233 

not  necessary,  however,  as  one  of  the  men  shown  is  there 
probably,  merely  for  the  sake  of  having  his  picture  taken. 
A  boy  to  tend  the  fire,  and  a  smith  to  work  the  press,  is  all 
that  is  required.  The  machine  is  started  and  stopped  by  the 
treadle.  The  man  at  the  extreme  end  is  the  inventor. 

The  writer  has  had  the  opportunity  of  seeing  this  process 
in  operation.  The  tools  used  were  somewhat  different  from 
these  shown,  and  more  operations  were  required,  although  the 
basic  principle  involved  in  the  invention  was  identical.  The 
new  link  of  the  chain,  which  was  of  half-inch  size,  was  bent  in 
the  die  C,  as  described,  but  in  the  die  E  the  ends  were  merely 
rounded,  and  the  central  hole  formed  nearly  through,  without 
being  actually  punched.  The  new  link  was  then  closed  up  in 
a  third  operation  as  before.  These  operations  took  place  in  a 
press  of  the  same  type  as  shown  in  Fig.  229.  The  unfinished 
shed  link  was  next  taken  to  a  small  crank-press  standing  beside 
the  larger  machine,  where  first  the  central  hole  was  punched 
through,  after  which,  for  a  completing  operation,  the  link  was 
pushed  through  a  trimming-die  to  have  the  fin  shaved  off. 
This  resulted  in  an  exceedingly  neat  and  clean-looking  link, 
with  the  joint  tightly  closed  and  smoothly  finished.  The  oper- 
ation of  forming  the  link  for  a  half-inch  chain  takes  25  seconds. 

Besides  the  obvious  rapidity  of  making  chains  by  this  meth- 
od, there  is  the  more  important  advantage  of  greatly  increased 
strength.  The  British  Government  requirements  for  chains 
insist  on  a  factor  of  safety  of  5,  owing  to  the  unknown  quan- 
tity of  the  strength  of  the  weld.  A  good  welded  half-inch 
chain  fails  at  about  13,000  pounds.  Samples  of  this  improved 
weldless  type  were  tested  at  about  16,000  pounds  when  made  of 
wrought  iron,  and  they  run  with  remarkable  uniformity  at 
about  this  load,  showing  that  a  higher  factor  of  safety  could  eas- 
ily be  used.  Furthermore,  the  use  of  steel  is  made  possible 
by  the  fact  that  a  welding  heat  is  not  required.  A  heat  intense 
enough  to  weld  steel  will  decarbonize  it,  so  that  it  has  not  the 
strength  that  it  previously  possessed.  Steel  is  especially  use- 
ful in  crane  service,  where  durability  is  fully  as  important  as 
strength.  A  wrought-iron  chain  will  wear  and  stretch  until  it 


234  DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

will  not  fit  the  sprockets,  long  before  it  breaks.  Steel  chains 
made  by  this  new  process  test  at  about  21,000  pounds  for  y2- 
inch  side.  Fractured  samples  seen  by  the  writer  failed  at  the 
sides  of  the  links,  and  not,  as  might  be  expected,  at  the  point 
where  the  two  parts  of  the  same  link  come  together.  An  inter- 
esting point  is  the  fact  that  the  two  halves  of  the  split  link 
begin  to  separate  a  little  while  before  the  final  rupture  takes 
place,  thus  serving  as  a  sort  of  safety  indicator  to  apprise  the 
user  of  the  fact  that  he  is  near  the  danger  limit. 

This  invention  is  controlled  by  the  Internationale  Han- 
delsgesellschaft,  Kleineberg  &  Co.,  and  is  for  sale  in  this 
country  by  the  International  Import  and  Export  Company,  of 
No.  1  Madison  Avenue,  New  York  City. 

Modern  Methods  of  Manufacturing  Welded  Chain 

It  is  not  perhaps  generally  known  that  the  United  States  is 
not  only  the  largest  producer,  but  also  the  largest  consumer  of 
welded  chain  in  the  world,  and  that  its  annual  production 
reached,  in  the  year  just  ended,  the  60,000-ton  mark.  This 
industry  is  probably  one  of  the  best  examples  of  large  growth 
made  possible  by  the  introduction  of  the  latest  types  of  labor- 
saving  machinery.  The  increasing  demand  for  this  product, 
which  was  greatly  in  excess  of  the  production  in  1901-2,  re- 
sulted in  many  plants  being  started  in  the  following  year, 
and  1904  found  the  production  slightly  in  excess  of  the  con- 
sumption. The  present  era  of  prosperity  and  the  general 
resumption  of  all  manufacturing  business  finds  the  production 
of  welded  chain  greater  than  ever  before,  and  the  prospects 
for  a  most  satisfactory  year  are  of  the  brightest. 

This  industry  is  what  one  might  call  a  transplanted  indus- 
try, as  in  former  years  England  supplied  us  with  all  our  chain, 
but  our  consumption  reached  such  proportions  that  it  was 
found  necessary  for  us  to  enter  this  field  as  manufacturers.  As 
an  accompaniment  of  the  transplanting,  the  processes  and  the 
product  have  been  corrected,  improved,  and  developed  until 
to-day  American  chain  is  recognized  as  a  standard. 

The  manufacture  of  chain  requires  essentially  skilled  labor 


FORMING    OF    HEAVY    STOCK    IN    DIES  23 S 

and  the  most  modern  machinery,  as  on  these  depend  not  only 
quality  of  the  finished  product  but  also  the  low  cost  of  the 
production.  The  illustrations  given  herewith  show  three  of 
the  latest  and  most  important  examples  of  labor-saving  ma- 
chinery, devised  and  adapted  to  meet  the  demand  for  greater 
production  and  better  quality. 

In  order  that  the  value  of  these  three  machines  in  modern 
chain  manufacture  may  be  more  clearly  seen,  the  old  method 
of  manufacture,  as  it  is  still  carried  on  in  some  parts  of 
Europe,  will  first  be  described. 

Former  Method  of  Making  Chain 

Taking,  for  example,  the  way  in  which  ^-inch  common 
chain  was  formerly  made,  we  found  that  the  smith  placed  in 
his  fire  several  pieces  of  ^6-inch  straight,  round  iron  which 
has  been  previously  cut  to  the  required  length.  As  one  of 
these  reached  the  proper  heat,  about  a  cherry-red,  it  was  with- 
drawn, one  end  placed  in  a  hole  in  the  anvil,  the  bar  ham- 
mered with  a  hand-hammer  into  a  rough  U  shape,  and  then 
placed  back  in  the  fire  for  another  heat,  and  in  the  meantime 
another  piece  which  had  been  heated  was  bent  into  the  U 
shape,  and  so  oh. 

The  first  U-shaped  link,  having  reached  almost  a  white 
heat,  was  taken  from  the  fire,  its  open  end  hooked  through 
the  link  last  welded,  laid  flat  on  the  anvil,  and  one  end  of  the 
U  link  drawn  with  the  hand-hammer  to  a  taper  of  about  60 
degrees  with  the  diameter  of  the  bar.  This  was  called  scrafing 
the  link,  and  when  one  end  was  thus  scrafed  the  link  was 
turned  over  and  the  other  end  scrafed  in  a  like  manner,  so 
that  both  ends  were  drawn  to  a  taper,  but  on  opposite  sides. 
The  link  was  then  placed  on  the  horn  of  the  anvil  and  the 
ends  bent  toward  each  other,  so  that  the  scrafed  ends  lapped, 
after  which  it  was  laid  flat  on  the  anvil,  and  these  scrafed  ends 
hammered  closely  together.  This  process  completed  the  oval 
shape  of  the  link,  and  it  was  placed  back  in  the  fire  for  the 
final  and  welding  heat.  When  this  was  reached,  the  link  was 
withdrawn  from  the  fire  and  the  scrafed  ends  were  welded  as 


236  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 

the  link  was  turned  over  and  back,  so  that  every  portion  of 
the  part  of  the  link  being  welded  should  receive  the  proper 
working  that  was  necessary  to  secure  a  perfect  weld.  By  this 
process  the  smith  could  not  weld  over  250  pounds  of  J^-inch 
common  chain  per  day,  this  being  equivalent  to  31  feet,  or  156 
links  as  a  day's  work,  and  while  the  quality  of  the  chain  pro- 
duced in  this  manner  was  of  the  best,  it  was  found  that  by 
performing  part  of  the  labor  by  machinery  the  production 
^ould  be  quadrupled  and  the  quality  bettered. 

Present  Method  of  Making  Welded  Chain 

Under  the  present  process  of  manufacture,  we  find  that  the 
long  bar  is  now  wound  into  a  spiral  of  links  on  a  link-wind- 
ing machine,  and  then  cut  up  into  links  on  the  link-cutting 
machine,  the  cutting  process  forming  the  scrafs  on  the  ends  of 
the  links,  and  doing  away  with  two  heatings  of  the  iron  that 
were  necessary  under  the  former  process,  as  the  winding  and 
cutting  are  done  with  the  iron  cold. 

The  Link-Winder 

The  link-winding  machine,  Fig.  230,  consists  of  a  hori- 
zontal shaft  about  4  feet  long,  which  is  operated  by  a  belt  and 
pulley  geared  to  one  end,  while  on  the  other  end  is  attached 
the  winding  mandrel  or  link-former.  •  This  mandrel  can  be 
changed  according  to  the  links  that  are  to  be  wound,  and  has 
outside  dimensions  conforming  to  the  inside  dimensions  of 
the  required  link.  One  end  of  the  bar  of  iron  is  fastened 
over  this  mandrel  by  a  movable  attachment,  and  a  grooved 
guide-wheel  is  lowered  to  meet  the  bar  and  press  it  firmly  on 
the  mandrel  by  means  of  a  powerful  spring.  As  the  machine 
is  started,  the  shaft  slowly  revolves  and  the  iron  is  wound 
tightly  around  the  mandrel  in  the  form  of  a  spiral  of  tight 
spring,  the  pressure  of  the  grooved  guide-wheel  forcing  the 
iron  to  conform  exactly  to  the  desired  shape.  When  the  bar 
has  been  entirely  wound  up  the  result  is  a  spiral  link  about 
6  feet  long,  ready  to  be  cut  into  links.  By  means  of  this 


FORMING    OF    HEAVY    STOCK    IN    DIES 


237 


machine  9,000  pounds  of  bar  iron  can  be  wound  into  spirals  in 
one  day,  equal  to  about  5,000  links.  In  some  rolling  mills 
which  supply  chain  manufacturers  with  rods,  they  have  link- 
winding  machines  placed  so  that  the  bar  of  iron  can  be  wound 


hot  into  spirals  as  it  comes  from  the  rolls,  as  by  so  doing  the 
link-winder  can  be  run  at  a  higher  rate  of  speed,  resulting  in 
greater  daily  production  and  with  less  waste  than  by  cold 
winding. 


238  DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

The  Link-Cutter 

The  link-cutting  machine  consists  of  one  fixed  lower  cut- 
ting-blade and  one  sliding  upper  cutting-blade,  which  slides 
in  a  groove  and  is  operated  by  belt  and  pulley  gears.  The 
spirals  are  fed  into  the  cutting-blades  from  the  left  side  of  the 
cutter  and  held  in  such  a  manner  that  the  iron  is  cut  at  an 
angle  of  60  degrees  with  the  diameter  of  the  rod,  each  cut 
releasing  one  link,  wound  and  scrafed  ready  for  welding,  and 
at  the  rate  of  one  cut  every  second,  or  36,000  links  per  day. 

The  Welding  Machine 

The  power-hammer  on  which  the  chain  is  now  welded  is 
shown  in  Fig.  231  and  represents  the  results  of  years  of  experi- 
ence and  trial.  When  the  idea  of  welding  the  links  of  a  chain 
by  means  of  dies  instead  of  by  blows  of  hand-hammers  was 
first  conceived,  a  foot-power  hammer  was  attached  to  the  anvil, 
the  hammer  being  hinged  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  anvil 
from  the  smith  and  so  arranged  that  by  kicks  on  a  foot-treadle 
the  smith  could  swing  the  hammer-arm  down  to  meet  the  face 
of  the  anvil.  In  the  lower  face  of  the  hammer-arm  was  at- 
tached the  upper  die,  and  on  the  face  of  the  anvil.  In  the 
lower  face  of  the  hammer-arm  was  attached  the  upper  die,  and 
on  the  face  of  the  anvil  was  attached  the  lower  die,  the  result 
being  a  smooth  finish  superior  to  that  of  a  hammer-welded 
link.  This  was  a  big  step  in  the  right  direction,  but  it  was 
soon  found  that  on  large  sizes  of  chain  the  labor  of  operating 
the  hammer-arm  by  foot-power  was  too  great  and  the  present 
well-known  type  of  power-operated  hammer  was  devised  to 
obviate  this  difficulty.  The  power  for  operating  this  type  is 
conveyed  to  a  pulley  on  the  hammer-base  by  means  of  a  belt 
from  the  shafting  of  the  shop,  arranged  to  give  the  hammer  a 
speed  of  about  120  strokes  per  minute.  The  weight  of  the 
hammer-arm  is  in  its  head,  and  the  force  of  its  blow  is  due 
both  to  gravity  and  to  the  pulling-power  exerted  by  a  power- 
ful spring.  The  machine  is  so  arranged  that  when  not  in  use 
the  arm  is  raised  about  a  foot  from  the  face  of  the  anvil  and  held 


FORMING    OF    HEAVY    STOCK    IN    DIES 


239 


there  by  a  catch,  so  that  when  this  catch  is  removed  by  a  pres- 
sure on  the  foot-treadle,  the  hammer  will  fall  heavily  on  the 
face  of  the  anvil.  The  pulley  on  the  hammer-base  operates  a 
short  shaft  carrying  an  elliptical  cam,  and  is  so  arranged  that 
when  the  hammer-arm  is  caught  and  held  up  from  the  face  of 
the  anvil  the  cam  will  not  meet  the  base  of  the  arm,  but  when 
the  arm  has  been  released  and  descends  on  the  anvil  the  base 


FIG.  231. — The  welding-hammer. 

of  the  arm  is  brought  within  reach  of  the  rotating  cam,  which 
strikes  the  base  of  the  arm  and  raises  the  arm  about  a  foot 
from  the  anvil,  when  further  rotation  of  the  cam  releases  the 
arm  and  permits  it  to  fall  again.  This  operation  continues 
until  the  link  has  been  welded,  when,  by  releasing  the  foot- 
treadle  the  arm  is  caught  and  held  up  until  another  link 
is  ready  to  weld.  By  means  of  this  hammer  1,000  pounds 


240  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

of  ^j-inch  chain  can  be  welded  in  one  day,  equivalent  to 
124  feet,  or  626  links,  being  four  times  the  daily  produc- 
tion under  the  old  hand  process. 

The  Die 

In  regard  to  the  dies  used,  the  lower  die  consists  of  a  block 
of  steel  cut  away  until  a  small  rounded  projection  is  left  which 
will  just  fit  inside  the  end  of  the  link,  while  the  upper  die  is  a 
block  of  steel  hollowed  out  so  that  it  will  just  fit  over  the  out- 
side of  the  end  of  the  link,  the  space  between  the  two  dies  be- 
ing just  the  size  of  the  end  of  the  link  which  is  to  be  welded. 

These  dies  are  fitted  in  spaces  left  in  the  face  of  the  ham- 
mer-head, and  the  face  of  the  anvil,  so  that  different  size  dies 
can  be  used  on  the  same  power-hammer,  according  to  the  size 
chain  that  is  to  be  welded. 

The  Process  of  Welding 

The  smith  selects  from  the  several  links  in  the  glowing 
bed  of  coke  in  the  furnace  one  that  has  reached  the  welding- 
heat,  and  hooking  it  through  the  link  last  welded,  places 
the  open  end  of  the  link  over  the  lower  die.  Pressure  on 
the  foot-treadle  releases  the  hammer-arm  and  the  impact  of  the 
blow  forces  the  scrafed  ends  closely  together  and  welds  the 
link,  the  dies  reducing  the  body  of  the  weld  to  the  same  size 
as  the  rest  of  the  link  and  giving  the  weld  a  smooth,  finished 
appearance,  superior  to  a  hammer-welded  chain.  About  ten 
blows  of  the  hammer-arm  are  required  to  make  and  finish  the 
weld,  the  interval  between  the  blows  of  the  arm  being  utilized 
by  the  smith  to  turn  the  link  over  and  back  on  the  lower  die 
and  to  lightly  tap  the  weld  with  his  hand-hammer,  thus  giving 
the  proper  working  necessary  to  secure  a  perfect  weld. 

The  use  of  these  three  important  machines  has  completely 
revolutionized  the  process  of  chain  manufacture,  the  result  not 
only  being  increased  production,  but  also  a  much  better  grade 
of  chain  at  a  greatly  reduced  cost. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

FORGING    MACHINE,    STEAM-HAMMER,     BULLDOZER,  AND    SWAGING 
MACHINE    METHODS    AND    PROCESSES 

Handy  Bulldozer  Appurtenances 

THE  bulldozer,  or  bending-machine,  is  at  present  found  in 
almost  every  car,  railroad,  bridge,  and  agricultural  shop  in  the 
country,  and  as  a  time-saver  and  all-around  tool  for  wrought- 
iron  work  it  stands  preeminent.  Long  experience  with  this 
machine  and  with  the  varied  methods  used  in  different  shops 
have  given  opportunity  to  judge  of  the  easiest  and  best  meth- 
ods for  doing  work  on  it. 

A  back  plate  (Fig.  1,  of  whole  Fig.  232)  is  dispensed 
with  in  many  shops  using  this  machine,  but  why,  unless  it  is 
ignorance  of  its  utility,  is  unknown,  as  it  is  indispensable. 
Having  introduced  it  in  several  shops,  it  has  always  been 
retained,  and  the  wonder  has  been  how  they  got  along  without 
it  before.  It  keeps  the  work  straight,  saves  a  great  deal  of 
gray  iron,  and  it  is  much  easier  to  fasten  the  forms  to  than 
the  bed  of  the  machine. 

By  making  a  divided  apron,  or  flat  part,  as  in  Fig.  2,  and 
casting  a  lug  on  the  bottom,  see  Fig.  3,  its  usefulness  is  in- 
creased and  the  plate  is  lightened  for  easier  handling.  The 
plate  should  be  made  plenty  wide  enough  to  take  in  the 
longest  work  done  on  the  machine  and  the  face  and  apron 
should  be  planed  perfectly  true.  A  depressed  fillet  at  A, 
Fig.  2,  allows  a  former  to  always  go  snug  against  the  back. 
Two  bolt  slots  in  the  back  are  better  than  having  to  drill  new 
holes  to  fasten  the  forms.  The  holes  in  the  forms  can  be 
cored  to  suit,  or  drilled  as  desired. 

The  plate  on  the  ram  head  is  shown  in  Fig.  4.  It  should 
have  tongues  cast  to  fit  the  crosshead  firmly,  so  that  there  will 

241 


242 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


"   - 


fTJ 

<M 


MACHINE-FORGING   METHODS  AND    PROCESSES  243 

be  no  side  movement.  It  should  be  about  12  inches  shorter 
than  the  back  plate.  The  bolt  slots  should  be  for  fa-inch 
bolts,  allowing  them  to  slide  easily.  This  applies  to  the  back- 
plate  as  well. 

A  V-block,  Fig.  5,  serves  for  a  great  variety  of  formers  if 
properly  made,  as  an  angle  to  45  degrees  can  be  bent,  and 
most  of  the  work  can  be  done  cold.  The  block  should  be 
made  of  tool-steel,  hardened.  A  cast  block  gives  good  results, 
but  of  course  wears  much  faster.  The  block  should  be  of  the 
dimensions  given  in  Fig.  5  and  as  wide  as  may  be  required 
for  work  done  in  the  shop;  the  small  Vs  at  back  are  for  lip- 
ping and  turning  gibs.  The  block  is  fastened  on  the  back- 
plate  by  two  1^-inch  studs  screwed  into  the  plate  on  each 
side  of  the  block,  with  a  1^-inch  strap  for  a  compression-bar. 
Fig.  6  shows  the  arrangements.  Holes  for  the  block  should 
be  provided  also  on  the  operating  side  of  the  machine,  about 
12  inches  from  the  end  of  the  plate,  so  that  long  work  can  be 
done.  Otherwise  the  head  would  catch  the  iron  when  the 
plunger  was  in  action.  Figs.  7,  8,  and  9  show  samples  of 
work  done  cold  with  this  simple  device. 

The  plunger  and  socket  are  the  next  consideration.  The 
socket  is  shown  in  Fig.  10,  with  the  strap  for  it.  The  long 
slots  are  provided  for  raising  or  lowering  the  plunger,  as  this 
part  needs  a  variable  adjustment.  The  back  should  be  ma- 
chined, so  that  it  will  be  lined  up  at  perfect  right  angles  with 
the  crosshead. 

The  plunger  can  be  simply  a  piece  of  2-inch  square  iron 
with  a  piece  of  tool-steel  welded  into  the  working  end  for  a 
nose;  wide  enough  to  accommodate  the  widest  end  to  be  bent, 
and  trued  on  a  shaper  to  a  4  5 -degree  angle  on  each  side.  The 
point  should  be  blunt  and  hardened,  the  end  in  the  socket 
being  trued  so  that  it  sets  perfectly  snug  when  the  socket  is 
pulled  up  right.  Fig.  11  shows  the  finished  tool. 

This  assortment  gives  a  simple  and  inexpensive  provision 
for  doing  a  wide  range  of  work,  especially  in  shops  which 
have  but  few  pieces  to  bend  at  a  time;  but  of  course  it  is  good 
for  any  number  after  being  set,  and  so  easily  changed  for  any 


244  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 

other  angle  or  size  of  iron  by  backing  off  or  running  the  back- 
plate  up,  that  it  answers  for  rounds  as  well  as  for  flats. 

A  simple  device  for  U-bolts,  links,  staples,  and  hangers  is 
shown  in  detail  in  Figs.  12,  the  arms;  13,  rollers;  14  studs, 
and  1 5,  the  plunger  for  U-bolts.  The  sockets  shown  in  Fig. 
10  is  used  with  this  device  also,  and  comes  in  exferemely  handy 
for  other  forms  as  well,  and,  like  a  few  dollars  in  one's  pocket, 
is  a  handy  thing  to  have. 

Flats  can  be  bent  as  well  as  rounds  by  making  rollers  with- 
out concaves.  The  adjustment  for  different  sizes  is  made  by 
the  eye-bolts  on  which  the  rollers  turn.  Figs.  16  and  17  show 
the  idea.  Of  course  a  plunger  has  to  be  made  for  each  shape, 
and  it  can  be  made  of  gray  or  wrought  iron,  unless  constantly 
in  use.  Then  the  working  points  should  be  made  of  steel  if 
used  on  cold  bending. 

Roller  arms  for  the  crosshead  are  the  next  essential  for  this 
machine.  There  are  many  shapes  bent  where  the  work  is 
done  by  what  are  termed  "wing"  forms,  with  much  better 
results  than  from  plunger  forms.  The  piece  shown  in  Fig. 
18  would  tear  the  iron  and  reduce  the  sides  so  with  a  plunger 
form  that  it  would  be  impracticable,  but  by  substituting  the 
wings  the  work  is  done  perfectly.  Fig.  19  shows  a  roller-arm 
for  the  crosshead.  It  is  made  right  and  left.  The  same  flat 
rollers,  eye-bolts,  and  threaded  rod  for  adjustment  can  be  used 
as  before.  These  arms  should  be  forgings,  and  made  quite 
heavy,  as  they  have  sometimes  to  stand  a  very  heavy  strain. 
At  least  two  #j-inch  bolts  should  be  used  to  fasten  them  to 
the  crosshead. 

With  this  outfit  on  hand  a  great  many  cast  forms  are  dis- 
pensed with.  In  some  shops  these  become  a  positive  nuisance, 
being  so  numerous,  and  representing  quite  a  value  in  useless 
material. 

Tack  and  Tack-Dies 

Although  produced  by  what  looks  to  be  the  crudest  of 
dies,  and  which  are  made  and  kept  in  order  by  the  use  of  the 
grindstone  or  emery-wheel  alone,  the  manufacture  of  tacks  is 
attended  with  the  least  waste  of  material,  and  the  smallest 


MACHINE-FORGING    METHODS  AND    PROCESSES 


245 


percentage  of  bad  work,  of  any  business  in  the  sheet-metal  line 
that  I  know  of. 

Some  years  ago  I   was   interested,  mechanically,   in  the 


E3> 


FIG.  233. — Tack-making  tools  and  their  action. 

making  of  both  tacks  and  tack-machinery,  and  while  thus  en- 
gaged I  accumulated  a  lot  of  information  on  the  subject  that 
may  interest  my  readers. 


246 


DROP- FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


Tacks  were  first  (I  was  going  to  say  invented,  but  I  hardly 
think  I  could  back  that  claim  up)  made  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  in  177$  one  Jeremiah  Wilkinson,  of  Cumberland, 
R.  L,  started  the  manufacture  of  tacks  cut  from  sheet-iron 
with  hand  shears  and  headed  with  a  hand-hammer  in  a  bench 
vise.  In  1786,  Ezekiel  Reed,  of  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  invented 
a  machine  that  would  partially  make  a  tack,  and  in  1798  he 
took  out  a  patent  on  a  machine  for  cutting  off  and  heading 
them  in  one  operation.  This  machine  was  fed  by  hand;  but 
with  that  exception  it  was  practically  the  same  as  the  Reed 
nail  machine  in  use  to-day.  In  1727,  Thomas  Blanchard,  of 


FIG.  234, — Complete  set  of  tack-making  tools. 

Abington,  Mass.,  invented  a  machine  intended  especially  for 
tacks.  This  machine  is  what  is  known  to  this  day  as  the 
Blanchard  tack-machine,  and  is  the  only  successful  machine 
in  use  for  cutting  tacks  from  sheet-metal  that  I  am  acquainted 
with.  As  first  made,  it  was  a  hand-fed  machine,  whereas  now 
it  is  automatic;  but  with  that  exception  the  machine  was  pre- 
cisely the  same  as  built  to-day.  The  tack  is  cut  off  by  the 
contact  of  the  two  upper  knives  (see  Figs.  233  and  234)  and 
the  bed  knife  below.  In  the  action  of  cutting,  the  two  upper 
knives  work  as  one;  and  as  soon  as  the  blank  for  the  tack  is  cut 
off,  and  the  left-hand  knife,  known  as  the  '  'loggy,"  stops,  and 
the  right  hand  one,  called  the  "leader,"  holding  the  blank  by 


MACHINE-FORGING    METHODS   AND    PROCESSES  247 

the  aid  of  a  bent  finger  of  steel,  called  the  "carrier,"  carries  it 
down  into  the  gripping-dies,  which  close  and  hold  it  while  the 
heading-tool  comes,  up,  upsetting  the  stock  which  has  been 
left  projecting  out  from  the  dies  for  the  head;  and,  as  the  dies 
open,  a  knock-out  attachment  clears  the  tack  from  them,  and 
it  falls  into  the  pan  below.  These  operations,  five  in  number 
on  each  tack,  are  performed  at  the  rate  of  275  tacks  per  min- 
ute, and  for  nearly  600  minutes  in  a  day.  One  tacker  and  a 
good  boy  will  grind,  keep  the  dies  in  order,  and  operate  eight 
to  twelve  machines. 

The  die-making  outfit  consists  of  a  single  machine,  a  dou- 
ble ended  emery-grinder — one  end  carrying  a  large,  coarse 
wheel  for  roughing  out  the  dies,  and  on  the  other,  two  or 
more  thin  wheels  for  "scoring  in"  the  gripping  dies  and  ma- 
king the  counter-sink  seen  under  the  head  of  the  tack.  Very 
little  forging  is  done  on  the  dies.  The  heading-die  is  drawn 
down  to  about  Y%  of  an  inch  square,  so  that  it  will  not  strike 
the  "leader"  knife,  and  the  "loggy"  is  drawn  down  thin  so 
as  to  avoid  the  gripping-dies. 

There  is  one  thing  about  the  machine  I  think  remarkable, 
and  that  is,  the  test  of  time  the  invention  has  stood;  it  has 
been  in  use  over  one  hundred  and  eighty  years,  with  little 
or  no  improvement,  except  on  the  feed  motion.  As  originally 
made,  it  could  be  built  with  a  very  few  tools,  no  planer  work 
being  necessary  and  very  little  lathe  work,  the  shaft  being  of 
cast  iron  with  the  cams  cast  on;  and  I  never  listen  to  the  music 
of  their  running  (for  it  is  music  for  me)  without  a  feeling  of 
admiration  for  the  man  who  invented  the  machine  so  far  in 
advance  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived. 

A  Rapid  Action  Hydraulic  Forging  Press 

As  most  well-informed  machinists  are  aware,  there  has 
taken  place  in  the  past  ten  or  fifteen  years  a  radical  change  in 
the  methods  employed  in  forging  heavy  work.  This  change 
has  been,  briefly,  the  substitution  of  the  press  for  the  hammer. 
With  the  increase  in  the  size  of  forgings  and  in  the  hardness 
of  the  material  of  which  they  are  made,  there  has  come  in- 


248  DROP- FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

creasing  difficulty  in  obtaining  satisfactory  results  with  the 
steam-hammer.  With  the  most  powerful  of  these  machines 
in  use  fifteen  years  ago,  it  was  well  nigh  impossible  to  deliver 
a  blow  to  such  intensity  that  its  effects  would  reach  to  the 
center  of  an  ingot  of  the  large  size  required  for  the  heaviest 
marine  and  ordnance  of  the  period.  A  blow  of  ordinary  in- 
tensity would  merely  deform  the  surface  of  the  work;  flaws  in 
the  center  of  the  material  might  even  be  enlarged  rather  than 
obliterated.  The  increasing  size  of  hammer  necessary  to  pro- 
duce the  desired  effect  in  forging  reached  its  culmination  in 
the  great  125-ton  machine,  of  which  a  model  was  exhibited  by 
the  Bethlehem  Steel  Company,  at  the  Chicago  Exhibition. 
This  great  instrument,  however,  had  scarcely  commenced  what 
was  expected  to  be  a  long  life  of  usefulness  before  the  process 
of  hydraulic  forging  was  found  to  be  so  far  superior  to  ham- 
mering that  the  giant  machine  was  relegated  to  an  inglorious 
obscurity. 

Tremendous  Pressure  of  the  Hydraulic  Press 

The  hydraulic  forging-press  was  first  applied  only  to  ex- 
tremely heavy  work.  On  billets  and  forgings  of  large  diam- 
eter, the  steady  and  tremendous  pressure  obtained  from  it  is 
distributed  through  the  whole  mass  of  metal  clear  to  the 
center,  bulging  out  the  side  of  the  work  instead  of  merely 
making  an  impression  on  the  surface  which  can  come  in  contact 
with  the  dies.  This  action  works  the  metal  throughout  its 
entire  volume,  closes  up  all  the  flaws,  and  gives  to  every  fiber 
the  toughening  effect  produced  by  judicious  working.  But 
the  slowness  of  action  of  the  regular  hydraulic  press  limited  its 
use  to  large  work  in  which  considerable  time  was  of  necessity 
consumed  in  handling  the  parts  being  operated  on  and  bring- 
ing it  into  position  for  a  new  stroke. 

To  obtain,  on  medium-sized  work,  the  benefits  of  pressure- 
working  as  distinguished  from  impact-working,  a  number  of 
arrangements  have  been  devised  for  giving  a  high  speed  to 
the  ram  in  raising  it  from  the  work  and  lowering  it  again,  with 
provision  exerting  the  desired  heavy  pressure  as  soon  as  the 


MACHINE-FORGING    METHODS   AND    PROCESSES 


249 


parts  are  in  contact  with  the  forging.  Of  these  various  ar- 
rangements one  of  the  most  interesting  is  that  employed  by 
Davy  Bros.,  of  Sheffield,  England.  Applications  of  the  idea  to 
two  forms  of  forging-presses  are  shown  in  Figs.  235  and  236. 
The  various  parts  are  seen  in  Fig.  235,  and  the  line  drawing  of 
the  same  press  in  Fig.  236.  The  upper  die  A,  is  attached  to  a 
crosshead  B,  which  has  bearings  on  the  four  vertical  tie-rods. 
The  hydraulic  pressure  is  applied  to  cylinder  C.  D  and  D 


FIG.  235. — Rapid  action  hydraulic  forging  press. 

are  two  steam-lifting  cylinders  for  raising  the  ram.  F  is  a 
combined  air  and  water  vessel,  adapted  to  store  the  water  used 
in  the  hydraulic  operations  and  furnish  it  to  the  ram  as 
desired  for  the  quick  movements,  this  being  done  by  displace- 
ment due  to  a  moderate  air-pressure.  These  operations  are 
controlled  by  an  automatic  valve  at  E.  G  is  the  hydraulic 
cylinder  of  the  steam  intensifier,  whose  steam-cylinder  is  seen 
at  H  in  Fig.  235,  the  main  part  of  it  being  below  the  floor. 


250 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


Operation  of  Process 

The  operation  of  the  mechanism  can  perhaps  best  be  de- 
scribed by  following  the  movements  of  the  operator  in  making 
a  single  working-stroke  on  a  forging,  starting  with  the  ram  in 
the  position  shown  in  Fig.  235,  with  the  dies  together.  The 
movements  of  the  press  are  controlled  by  lever  L.  The  oper- 
ator first  desires  to  raise  the  ram  B  for  the  purpose  of  inserting 
the  work.  Handle  L  is  pulled  over  toward  the  right,  this  opens 


FIG.   236. — Rapid  action  hydraulic  forging  press. 

valve  R,  first  allowing  the  stem  to  enter  under  the  pistons 
in  lifting  the  cylinders  D.  Ram  B  is  thus  raised,  forcing 
the  water  contained  in  cylinder  C  back  through  pipe  /  into 
the  water  end  of  the  intensifier  at  G.  When  the  intensifier 
ram  has  been  forced  downward  and  the  space  above  it  has 
been  completely  filled  with  the  returning  water,  the  upward 
movement  of  ram  B  would  have  to  cease,  did  not  the  operator 
continue  to  pull  lever  L  farther  toward  the  right.  This 
action  operates  a  relay  valve  at  M,  which,  admitting  steam 


MACHINE- FORGING    METHODS   AND    PROCESSES  251 

under  an  auxiliary  piston  N,  opens  valve  E,  thus  allowing  the 
water  in  pipe  /  to  escape  into  the  water-space  of  reservoir  P. 
This  reservoir  has  a  lower  compartment  containing  air  under 
moderate  pressure,  but  the  steam  in  the  cylinder  furnishes  suffi- 
cient force  to  return  the  water  to  the  reservoir  against  the  air- 
pressure  contained  in  it.  The  ram  being  thus  raised  for  the 
insertion  of  the  work,  the  operator  returns  lever  L  to  its 
central  position,  when  all  valves  are  closed  and  the  parts  are 
in  equilibrium. 

The  work  being  properly  presented  to  the  dies,  the  oper- 
ator pushes  the  controlling  lever  toward  the  left.  This  move- 
ment first  shifts  piston  valve  R  and  connects  cylinder  D  with 
the  exhaust.  The  weight  of  the  ram  and  die  is  thus  left  un- 
supported, and  they  descend  at  the  rate  of  about  2  feet  per 
second,  being  helped  along  by  the  water  under  pressure  in 
reservoir  Fy  entering  through  valve  E,  which  is  arranged  as  a 
check-valve  and  freely  permits  movement  in  this  direction. 
As  the  die  reaches  the  work,  a  further  movement  of  handle  -L 
to  the  right,  through  the  connecting  mechanism  shown,  opens 
the  balanced  poppet  valve  S  S,  admitting  steam  to  the  under 
side  of  the  piston  in  the  steam-cylinder  H  of  the  intensifies 
The  upward  movement  of  the  ram  resulting  from  this  forces 
the  water  under  tremendous  pressure  into  cylinder  C  of  the 
press,  giving  the  movement  and  pressure  required  for  the 
working  of  the  metal. 

This  movement  is  under  strict  control,  the  length  of  the 
stroke  of  the  intensifier  piston  being  limited  by  the  amount  by 
which  lever  L  has  been  pushed  over  toward  the  left.  This 
governing  action  is  obtained  through  a  floating  lever  mechan- 
ism, similar  to  that  used  for  water-wheel  governors,  steering 
engines,  etc.  A  bar,  K>  set  on  an  angle  is  engaged  by  a  roller 
P  attached  to  the  intensifier  piston-rod.  The  pushing  of  lever 
L  to  the  left  moves  bar  K  toward  the  roll.  As  the  roll  travels 
up  K  it  pushes  it  back  again,  and  the  pushing  back  of  this  bar 
is  transmitted  through  the  floating  lever  to  inlet  valve  S  and 
exhaust  valve  O,  operating  them  in  such  a  fashion  as  to  stop 
the  movement  of  the  intensifier  at  the  desired  point. 


252  DROP- FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

Provision  is  made  for  short  rapid  strokes  under  full  pres- 
sure, for  such  work  as  rounding,  swageing,  cogging  down, 
etc.  By  means  of  a  lever  shown  in  Fig.  235  at  the  operator's 
left  hand,  the  connection  between  lever  L  and  valve  R  may  be 
severed.  This  condition  is  shown  in  Fig.  235  by  the  dotted 
lines,  showing  the  link  attached  to  the  bell  cranks  raised. 
Weight  <2,  under  these  conditions,  drops  valve  R,  keeping  the 
lifting  cylinders  in  constant  communication  with  the  steam- 
pressure.  Now  the  handle  L,  being  worked  back  and  forth 
from  left  hand  to  the  central  position,  steam  is  alternately 
forcing  the  ram  down  and  allowing  the  steam-pressure  at  D 
to  bring  it  back.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  water  under 
pressure  in  reservoir  F  is  not  used  at  all,  since  handle  L  is 
not  moved  to  the  right  far  enough  to  separate  relay  valve  M. 
This  rapid  action  brings  the  press  into  the  same  class  with  the 
steam-hammer  for  operations  of  the  kind  referred  to. 

Pressure  for  Small  Work 

For  smaller  work,  that  requiring  a  pressure  of  from  150  to 
300  tons,  the  single  column  type  of  machine,  illustrated  in 
Fig.  237,  is  used.  In  this  the  whole  mechanism  is  self-con- 
tained, as  shown,  the  intensifier  being  mounted  at  the  rear  of 
the  frame,  which  is  hollow  and  serves  as  a  reservoir  for  the 
water-supply  under  pressure.  The  method  of  operation  and 
the  principle  of  the  mechanism  are,  however,  identical  with 
that  of  the  larger  presses.  The  150  and  200  ton  machines 
will  work  6  and  8  inch  diameter  ingots  successfully.  For  the 
large  sizes,  with  the  ordinary  steam-pressure  of  150  pounds 
per  square  inch,  and  water-pressure  of  2  Y?,  tons  per  square  inch, 
the  size  of  ingots  which  can  be  worked  varies  from  10  inches 
for  the  300-ton  size  and  36  inches  for  the  1,500-ton  size,  to 
72  inches  for  the  4,000-ton  size.  The  smallest  of  these 
machines,  working  on  short  stroke,  will  make  80  strokes  per 
minute  with  the  reservoir  F  cut  out  and  steam-pressure  on 
the  raising  cylinders  as  described;  and  with  a  machine  as 
large  as  1,200  tons,  as  many  as  60  effective  strokes  per 
minute  may  be  obtained.  This  great  rapidity  of  action 


MACHINE- FORGING    METHODS   AND    PROCESSES  253 


FIG.  237. — Multicy Under  hydraulic  forging  machine. 


254  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

brings  the  hydraulic-press  well  within  the  field  of  the  small 
and  medium  sized  steam-hammer.  Such  presses  are  some- 
what more  expensive  than  hammers  of  equivalent  power,  but 
the  additional  cost  of  the  foundations  for  the  latter  approxi- 
mately counterbalance  this  condition,  so  that  the  first  cost  is 
really  about  equal.  Only  about  half  the  steam  is  required 
for  the  press,  and  it  is  much  less  liable  to  waste  through 
wear  and  neglect.  It  has  also  the  great  advantages  that  the 
breakage  of  the  working  parts  is  very  small,  and  the  tools  can 
be  made  lighter  and  cheaper,  and  last  longer. 

Hot-Pressed  Nut-Machine 

The  line  engravings,  Fig.  238,  herewith  illustrate  the 
Burdict  hot-pressed  nut-machine  built  by  the  Howard  Iron 
Works,  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  This  machine  is  of  heavy  design, 
as  indicated  in  the  illustration,  and  will  form  from  the  bar  hex- 
agon or  square  nuts  of  any  size  from  ^  to  1  ^  inches. 

Referring  to  Fig.  238,  which  gives  a  clear  idea  of  the  con- 
struction and  operation  of  the  machine,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
slide  A  A ',  which  carries  the  cut-off  for  severing  the  stock,  is 
actuated  by  a  cam  B,  which  is  mounted  on  the  driving-shaft, 
together  with  four  eccentrics  C  and  two  fly-wheels;  the  con- 
nection between  the  two  portions  of  the  cut-off  slide  are 
adjustable  for  wear  by  means  of  jam  nuts,  so  that  backlash  is 
avoided  and  smooth  running  assured.  The  cut-off  D  is  held 
in  a  holder  E  by  a  set  screw  E ',  and  the  holder  is  turned 
bolted  to  the  side  that  it  can  be  adjusted  to  a  limited  extent. 

The  four  eccentrics  are  in  two  pairs  for  operating  the  slides 
F  and  G,  which  carry,  respectively,  the  crowner  and  piercer; 
the  slides  and  eccentrics  being  connected  by  eight  rods  //,  four 
on  each  side  of  the  machine.  The  piercer  is  held  in  its  slide 
by  a  very  strong  friction-clamp  /,  and  is  readily  removed. 
The  piercer  slide  connections  are  rigid,  the  wear  being  taken 
up  on  the  eccentric  straps. 

The  crowner  /is  held  in  its  slide  by  clamp  bolts,  and  the 
connections,  on  this  slide  are  so  arranged  that  when  the  nut  is 
being  pressed  into  shape  the  pressure  comes  on  a  very  heavy 


MACHINE-FORGING    METHODS   AND    PROCESSES 


255 


abutment  K,  and  does  not  strain  the  eccentrics  and  operate  the 
slide.  The  four  rods  connecting  the  eccentrics  and  the  slide 
pass  freely  through  the  trunnion  connections  Z>,  and  each  of 
the  rods  is  provided  with  a  spring  M,  which  is  confined,  as 
shown,  between  the  end  of  the  connection  L  and  the  collar 
clamped  to  the  rod.  When  the  slide  reaches  the  abutment, 


FIG.  238. — Hot-pressed  nut  machine. 

the  rods  slide  on  a  certain  distance,  leaving  the  stationary  long 
enough  for  the  nut  to  be  pressed  or  crowned,  the  springs  M 
on  the  rods  taking  up  the  slack  on  the  return  stroke  without 
noise  or  shock. 

In  operating  this  machine,  the  heated  stock  is  fed  in  front 
of  the  forming-dies  N  against  a  back  gage  O  (and  also  against 
a  back  gage  which  does  not  show),  and  the  cut-off  advancing 


256  DROP- FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

cuts  off  and  forces  the  stock  for  the  nut  into*  the  dies,  bringing 
it  up  to  the  crowner  (which  is  stationary  for  the  time  being) 
and  pressing  it  into  shape.  While  the  partly  finished  nut  is 
held  rigidly  between  the  crowner  and  cut-off,  the  piercer  ad- 
vances and  completes  the  nut.  As  soon  as  the  hole  is  pierced, 
the  cut-off,  which  is  held  stationary  during  the  piercing  opera- 
tion, moves  back  and  the  crowner  follows  it  up,  but  at  a  slower 
pace,  so  that  when  the  cut-off  arrives  at  the  end  of  its  stroke 
and  the  wade  or  scrap  is  ejected  by  means  of  the  stationary  rod 
P  the  nut  is  shoved  outside  of  the  forming-dies  by  the  crowner 
and  drops  under  the  machine.  Should  the  nut  have  any  ten- 
dency to  stick,  it  is  removed  by  a  knock-off  Q,  which  is  oper- 
ated by  a  cam  on  the  main  shaft;  thus  it  is  impossible  for  two 
nuts  to  get  into  the  forming-dies  at  the  same  time  under  any 
conditions. 

This  machine  can  be  changed  from  one  size  of  nut  to  an- 
other very  quickly,  as  only  the  tools  require  changing,  the 
movement  of  the  various  members  of  the  machine  being  the 
same  for  the  different  sizes  of  nuts. 

The  speed  of  the  machine  depends  somewhat  on  the  ex- 
pertness  of  the  operator,  a  speed  of  about  80  turns  per  minute 
usually  giving  good  results.  The  makers  state  that  the  output 
is  from  15,000  to  28,000  nuts  per  day  of  ten  hours. 

The  machine  is  very  rigid,  and  weighs,  when  ready  for 
work,  9,000  pounds.  It  has  fly-wheels  48  x  7  and  60  x  7 
inches,  and  may  be  belted  direct  from  a  clutch  on  the  line-shaft. 

A  smaller  machine  is  built  on  similar  lines  for  ^  to  ^ 
inch  nuts.  This  runs  at  110  to  125  turns  per  minute,  has 
fly-wheels  30  x  6  and  36x6  inches,  and  weighs  4, 100  pounds. 

A  Large  Hydraulic  Forging  Machine 

In  order  to  reduce  the  cost  of  certain  smith-shop  work 
done  by  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  the  multicylinder  hy- 
draulic forging  and  upsetting  machine,  shown  in  Fig.  237,  was 
designed  and  built. 

The  machine  has  been  in  operation  over  a  year  and  has 
more  than  met  the  expectations  of  those  responsible  for  its 


MACHINE- FORGING    METHODS   AND    PROCESSES  257 

installation,  as  the  average  price  paid  for  32  operations  now 
being  done  by  it  is  only  21  per  cent,  of  what  these  same  oper- 
ations cost  when  they  were  performed  by  hand,  and  the  work 
is  of  course  more  uniform.  This  saving  of  79  per  cent,  in 
cost  of  labor  seems  almost  incredible. 

The  work  for  which  dies  have  so  far  been  prepared  is  the 
usual  run  of  locomotive  forgings.  A  few  of  these  are  shown 
at  Figs.  239  and  240,  and  beneath  each  cut  is  the  percentage 
of  saving  over  hand  methods.  The  dies  are  very  simple  and 
low-priced,  and  the  cuts  of  the  work  are  shown  more  to  call 
attention  to  the  saving  in  cost  than  to  show  anything  ex- 
traordinary about  the  shapes  produced. 

The  press  consists  of  a  bed-plate  and  housings  supporting 
five  cylinders;  two^side  rams,  principally  used  for  holding  the 
dies  and  gripping  the  work  when  upsetting;  a  horizontal  ram 
for  upsetting  and  forming;  a  vertical  ram  for  punching  and 
shearing,  also  for  forming  parts  that  are  more  easily  handled 
in' a  horizontal  position.  Underneath  the  bed,  in  a  line  with 
the  vertical  cylinder,  is  a  stripping  ram. 

The  capacity  of  the  vertical  and  horizontal  rams,  each,  is 
200  tons;  the  two  side  rams  150  tons  each,  and  the  stripping 
ram  50  tons.  All  cylinders  are  steel-castings. 

The  bed-plate  is  in  three  sections,  the  housings  in  four. 
They  are  held  together  by  steel  rods,  shrunk  in  place.  The 
cylinders  are  all  made  -separate  from  the  bed  and  housings,  to 
allow  for  their  easy  removal. 

The  machine  is  controlled  by  one  man,  from  a  platform, 
where  a  full  view  can  be  had  of  any  operation.  The  water- 
pressure  used  is  1,500  pounds  per  square  inch. 

A  special  overhead  traveling  crane  serves  the  press,  taking 
the  iron  out  of  the  furnace,  placing  it  in  position,  and  remov- 
ing the  finished  pieces. 

Making  Elevator  Buckets  with  the  Steam- Hammer 

Some  years  ago  I  had  occasion  to  make  about  fifty  elevator 
buckets  for  a  dredge.  The  buckets,  which  resemble  Fig.  241, 
had  formerly  been  hammered  to  shape  by  hand  in  a  cast-iron 


258 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


former,  with  mallets.  This  was  a  tedious  and  expensive  pro- 
cess, requiring  a  number  of  heatings  for  each  bucket,  and  as 
more  of  them  would  probably  be  needed  for  future  dredges  we 
decided  to  make  a  pair  of  cast-iron  dies  and  form  the  buckets 
in  a  single  operation  with  the  3,500  pound  steam-hammer. 

We  had  on  hand  a  sample  bucket  of  ^ -inch  steel,  and  as 
the  small  reductions  in  size  by  shrinkage  of  the  die-castings 
were  not  objectionable,  I  used  the  sample  bucket  as  a  pattern 
from  which  to  mold  the  curved  portion  of  the  two  dies.  A 
cheap  wooden  frame  A,  Fig.  242,  was  nailed  up  for  a  pattern 
for  the  body  of  the  female  die,  the  sample  bucket  B  was  set  in 
it  and  fastened  with  wood  screws,  S  S,  and  his  wood  and  iron 
pattern  was  blocked  up  in  the  drag.  Sand  was  then  rammed 


r 


FIG.  239. — Locomotive  forgings  made  in  hydraulic  machine. 


MACHINE-FORGING   METHODS  AND    PROCESSES 


259 


in  the  drag  around  the  side  and  inside  of  the  pattern.  The 
dovetail  strips,  Q,  were  then  set,  the  parting  made  and  the  cope 
rammed  up,  the  mold  now  appearing  in  section  like  Fig.  240. 
It  was  then  rolled  over,  the  blocks  removed,  the  bucket  B 
unscrewed  and  lifted  out  of  the  frame.  Parting  sand  was  then 
put  on  the  curved  surface  left  by  the  bracket,  and  the  drag 
was  rammed  up  against  this  sand  pattern.  The  drag  was  lifted 
and  turned,  the  wood  and  sand  pattern  removed  from  the  cope, 
and  the  mold  closed,  appearing  in  section  like  Fig.  243.  The 
male  die  was  molded  in  a  similar  manner,  and  as  shown  in 
Figs.  244  and  245. 

The  molding  was  done  with  care,  and  the  resulting  casting 
was  excellent.     The  male-die  was  planed  to  fit  the  hammer- 


94*  97*      I****!  98* 

FIG.  240. — Locomotive  forgings  made  in  hydraulic  machine. 


260  DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

head,  and  the  female  to  fit  the  anvil-block.  Two  1-inch  guide- 
pins,  with  their  outer  ends  well  tapered,  were  driven  tightly 
into  the  lower  surface  of  the  male  die.  The  plates  for  the 
buckets  were  cut  to  very  nearly  the  correct  shape,  and  two 
holes,  Ey  Fig.  241,  were  punched  for  the  guide-pins.  After 
heating  in  the  furnace,  the  plate  was  held  up  on  the  guide- 
pins  while  the  hammer  was  brought  carefully  down,  not  stri- 
king any  blow  until  the  plate  was  forced  nearly  to  shape.  This 
gave  the  helpers  time  to  take  their  tongs  away  after  the  plate 
touched  the  upper  edge  of  the  lower  die.  One  or  two  blows 
then  took  out  any  wrinkles  and  formed  the  buckets  nicely. 
The  entire  lot  of  buckets  were  formed  easily  in  one  afternoon, 


— — J8 '- ^  {« J2 : 

FIG.  241. — Design  of  elevator  bucket. 

their  shape  was  more  uniform  than  that  of  the  hand-made 
buckets,  and  the  labor  saved  on  this  one  lot  more  than  paid 
for  the  dies. 

A  Job  for  the  Heavy  Swaging-Machine 

The  finished  forging,  Fig.  246,  shows  what  can  be  done  on 
a  heavy  swaging-machine  similar  to  the  Armstrong- Whitvvorth 
type,  and  a  description  of  how  it  is  done  and  the  swages  used 
may  be  of  interest. 

This  machine  has  four  rams,  making  about  600  blows  of  1  = 
inch  stroke  per  minute.  It  has  also  four  lower  rams  which  are 
adjustable  to  suit  the  particular  job,  and  they  can  also  be 
moved  when  required  while  operating  in  forging.  The  diam- 
eter and  length  required  are  determined  by  trial.  It  is  easier 
to  make  two  heads  than  one  at  the  same  time,  as  all  the  forces 
are  balanced,  and  hence  there  is  no  jerking  of  the  forgings  as 
would  happen  when  making  one;  for  this  reason,  as  well  as  the 


MACHINE-FORGING    METHODS   AND    PROCESSES 


261 


manufacturing  one,  the  stock  is  cut  off  long  enough  to  make 
two  complete  forgings.  The  stock  is  heated,  preferably  in  a 
gas  or  an  oil  furnace,  and  rotated  along  the  cutters,  dividing 
it  into  two  equal  lengths,  as  seen  in  Fig.  2,  when  it  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  heading  swages,  Fig.  3.  The  groove  formed  by 
the  cutters  is  run  on  the  sharp  edge  of  the  lower  swage  and 
then  is  rotated  along  from  right  to  left  until  it  comes  out  at 


242 


243 


'/Y'i  ••"-  ^..^^^^•i'-^^S'^:^^^ 

'••.'.V .::•   '  .-"».:•=•>  ^.;MfV>^  x'.;..'.-.^-  •/:,->«  v'-PC/ 

>-•->•*. •^';>^j  ;•:".;.:• 


244 


245 


FIGS.  242  to  245.  —  Molding  elevator  bucket  dies. 

the  other  end,  producing  two  well-formed  heads,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  4. 

The  1  %-inch  diameter  stock  gives  about  the  right  amount 
of  material  which  the  swages  can  take  in  to  form  the  ball.  To 
use  a  larger  diameter  of  stock  is  to  have  a  poorly  formed  head, 
which  will  be  anything  but  spherical  and  will  take  a  longer 
time  to  swage. 

The  end  of  the  stock  is  next  drawn  out  in  the  reducing 
swages,  Fig.  5,  then  flattened  down  to  the  required  breadth 


262 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


and  width  on  the  other  end  of  the  same  swages  by  alternately 
passing  it  through  first  one  way  and  then  the  other,  as  can 
readily  be  seen.  All  of  these  operations  are  rapidly  per- 
formed, the  forgings  being  then  separated,  and  this  finishes 
the  first  heat. 

The  second  heat  consists  in  forming  the  V-shaped  part, 
Fig.  6,  intended  to  fit  over  an  inch-square  bar,  and  in  making 


r    i 


Ifv^p 

^- -*l   E 


FIG.  246.  — Forging  in  the  heavy  swaging  machine. 

the  quarter  twist,  both  as  seen  in  the  finished  forging,  Fig.  1. 
The  forming  swages  illustrate  how  the  V  is  set  in,  the  swages 
being  shown  in  the  open  position.  The  forgings  are  located 
between  the  strips,  and  the  lower  ram  is  moved  up  quickly 
while  the  blow  from  the  upper  ram  bends  the  forging  into 
the  shape  shown,  the  strips,  which  are  of  the  same  thickness 
as  the  forgings,  acting  as  stops. 

The  quarter  twist  is  made  by  a  fixture  which  consists  of 


MACHINE-FORGING    METHODS   AND    PROCESSES 


263 


two  main  parts,  the  holder,  and  the  key,  the  construction  of 
both  being  chiefly  shown.  The  face  on  the  forging  is  brought 
up  to  the  face  of  the  holder;  the  key  is  moved  along  the  pin 
on  which  it  rests,  as  shown  in  the  elevation  and  which  also 
keeps  it  central  with  the  socket  in  the  holder. 


FIG.  247. — Passenger-car  truck  swing  hanger. 

The  lever  which  operates  the  gripping  plate  by  means 
of  an  eccentric  pin  is  then  raised,  after  which  the  key  is 
rotated  until  the  handle  strikes  the  stop,  twisting  the  forging 
with  it  to  the  required  angle.  The  forging  is  removed  by 
slipping  the  key  back  on  to  the  pin  and  then  pushing  the 
lever  back  to  the  open  position. 

In  a  fixture  which  is  likely  to  become  hot  by  contact  with 


264 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


the  material  operated  upon  and  where  scale  gathers,  gripping 
screws  are  objectionable  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  retaining 
the  gripping  plate  such  as  F  in  place  and  also  on  account  of 
lubrication.  The  reason  for  using  the  eccentric  pin,  which  is 
quick  in  its  action  and  self-locking,  is  mainly  to  overcome  this 
trouble,  and  it  is  a  good  construction.  In  order  to  get  rid  of 


FIG.  248. — Bolster  for  postal  and  baggage  cars. 

the  scale  which  will  naturally  gather  in  the  holder  socket,  a  slot 
is  cut  into  which  all  the  scale  will  drop,  keeping  the  socket 
clean  for  the  key  to  operate  in. 

These  tools  are  forged  from  steel,  except  the  quarter-twist 
fixture,  the  holder  being  a  gray-iron  casting.  All  are  carefully 
made,  the  swages  requiring  special  care  in  machining,  as  will 
be  apparent.  The  swages  are  arranged  in  the  rams,  so  that  the 


MACHINE-FORGING    METHODS   AND    PROCESSES 


26$ 


operator  passes  from  one  to  the  other  consecutively;  first,  to 
the  cutters,  second,  the  heading  swages,  third,  the  reducing 
and  flattening  swages,  and  fourth,  the  V-forming  swages,  the 
quarter-twist  fixture  being  conveniently  located  at  the  end  of 
the  machine.  Adjustable  gages  are  also  fixed  to  the  machine 
and  locate  all  the  positions  while  forging  that  are  necessary. 

This  forging  furnished  a 
good  example  of  some  of  the 
many  operations  which  can  be 
performed  on  a  heavy  swa- 
ging-machine.  The  operator 
of  such  a  machine  need  not 
be  a  smith,  in  fact  my  prac- 
tise is  not  to  have  a  smith,  but 
a  good  smith's  helper,  who 
can  be  more  readily  taught, 
and  such  work  is  also  a  step 
in  the  right  direction  for  him. 
This  machine  takes  care  of  a 
class  of  work  which  is  often 
done  on  the  drop-stamp  and 
produces  a  forging  which  is 
accurate,  next  has  no  fin,  and 
hence  leads  to  little  loss  in 
scrap  at  a  price  ranging  from 
YZ  to  1  cent  per  pound. 

Drop-Forging  for  the  Ajax 
Forging-Machine 

In  a  shop  where  there  are 
orders  for  a  large  quantity  of 
car  and  locomotive  forgings 
coming  in  daily,  the  first  thing  that  enters  the  foreman's 
mind  is  how  to  get  the  work  done  quickly,  and  I  find  by  ex- 
perience the  best  way  is  by  the  use  of  the  forging-machine 
and  bulldozer. 

The  large  number  of  forgings  that  can  be  turned  out  by 


FIG.  249.— Crowbar  for 
locomotive  boilers. 


266 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


these  machines  daily  is  surprising,  and  no  well-equipped  shop 
should  be  without  them. 

In  our  4-inch  forging-machine  we  are  turning  out  the 
following,  as  per  Figs.  247,  248,  and  249:  Swing  hangers  for 
passenger-car  trucks,  bolsters  for  all  baggage  and  postal  cars, 
crown  bars  for  locomotive  boilers,  drawbar  straps  for  baggage 
and  freight  cars,  connecting  rods  for  S.  L.  switch-stands,  slide 
plate  switches,  and  other  forgings  too  numerous  to  mention, 
some  of  which  are  shown  in  Figs.  250  and  252. 

In  designing  the  dies  for  the  work  to  be  done  on  these 
machines,  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  figure  out  the  necessary 


FIG.  250. — Work  of  the  forming-machine  and  bulldozer. 

amount  of  stock  to  make  the  piece  required  which  will  give 
the  length  of  die  to  be  used.  Fig.  252  shows  a  swing  hanger 
for  passenger-car  trucks,  with  the  dies  and  headers  for  making 
it.  For  stock  we  lay  the  parts  together,  put  them  in  a  small 
oil-fired  furnace,  and  in  a  very  short  time  we  have  a  welding 
heat  about  ten  inches  long  on  them.  They  are  then  placed  in 
the  lower  space  of  the  dies  and  the  lever  is  operated.  The 
dies  close  and  the  header  enters  them,  the  back-stop  on  the 
machine  holding  the  stock  from  slipping  back,  and  in  an 


MACHINE-FORGING    METHODS    AND    PROCESSES 


267 


instant  the  two  pieces  are  welded  together  and  the  head  is 
formed.  The  stock  is  then  turned  end  for  end  and  placed  in 
the  upper  space  of  the  die,  and  on  operating  the  lever  again 
the  dies  close  and  the  taper  mandrel  enters  the  die,  splits  the 
two  pieces  of  stock  apart,  and  forcing  them  into  the  die,  com- 
pletes the  hanger,  as  shown  in  the  lower  right  hand  view  of 
Fig.  252  and  also  in  Fig.  250.  We  made  from  fifty  to  sixty 


FIG.  251. — Work  of  the  forging-machine  and  bulldozer. 

of  these  hangers  per  day,  and  it  does  not  take  long  for  a  ma- 
chine of  this  kind  to  pay  for  itself. 

Care  must  be  taken  in  setting  dies  in  the  machine,  and  all 
bolts  must  be  well  tightened  before  starting.  Fig.  252  gives 
all  dimensions  of  the  work,  the  die  and  the  headers.  The 
die  seat  is  21  inches  long  when  the  dies  are  closed,  and  the 
header  block  is  at  the  end  of  its  stroke.  The  space  between 
the  header  block  and  dies  is  4>£  inches.  When  shorter  dies 
are  used,  the  punch  or  header  must  be  increased  in  length  in 
the  same  proportion.  As  the  length  of  dies  is  decreased  when 
headers,  punches,  or  mandrels  enter  the  dies,  the  distance  they 
go  into  the  dies  must  also  be  increased. 


268 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


MACHINE-FORGING    METHODS   A*ND    PROCESSES 


269 


In  making  the  bolsters  for  the  tea  and  silk  cars  recently 
built  in  the  Sacramento  shops,  we  take  our  1  x  5  x  12-inch 
bars,  cut  them  off  2  inches  longer  than  the  length  on  the  end 
— which  allows  one  inch  on  each  end  of  the  bar  for  upsetting 
and  welding — get  a  nice  white  heat  on  the  end  of  the  bar,  place 
it  in  the  machine,  and  press  the  lever  down.  The  dies  close, 
the  header  comes  up,  hits  the  end  of  the  bar,  welds  and  presses 


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FIG.  253. — Forging  machine  dies. 

it  into  shape,  and  we  have  one  end  of  the  bolster  completed. 
Reversing  the  piece  and  going  through  the  same  operations, 
we  have  a  bolster  completed  in  quicker  time  than  it  takes  to  ex- 
plain it.  I  find  by  testing  this  class  of  work  by  the  steam- 
hammer  process,  that  it  will  stand  a  better  test  than  similar 
work  done  by  hand.  These  ends  are  put  on  at  the  rate  of 
twenty  to  twenty-five  per  day. 

Crown  bars  for  locomotive  boilers  are  made  in  a  similar 
manner,  by  laying  a  piece  of  II/Q  x  3  x  9-inch  stock  between 


270 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC.' 


two  pieces  of  ^  x  5 -inch  bars  of  any  length  required,  the 

whole  being  welded  and  pressed  into  shape  by  one  operation. 

We  have  a  great  many  target  connecting-rods  for  S.  P. 

switch-stands  to  make  in  the  Sacramento  shops,  and  this  is  a 


Overhead  Timbers 


FIG.  254. — An  emergency  steam-hammer. 

simple  job  for  this  machine.  We  take  our  bar  of  1^-inch 
round  iron  on  the  required  length,  get  a  white  heat  on  about 
11  or  12  inches  of  it  at  one  end,  place  it  in  the  lower  portion 


MACHING- FORGING    METHODS   AND    PROCESSES  271 

of  the  die,  and  press  the  lever.  The  plunger  comes  up  and 
upsets  an  end  on  the  bar  2^x2x4^  inches  long.  We  then 
take  it  out  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  die,  place  it  in  the 
upper  portion  in  a  vertical  position,  when  the  die  closes  and 
the  punch  completes  the  jaw.  We  then  take  the  rod  to  a  3- 
inch  forging-machine  that  we  have  close  by  and  upset  the 
other  end.  This  takes  but  a  very  short  time,  and  we  have  a 
target  connecting-rod  completed  without  a  weld.  The  idea  in 
taking  these  rods  from  one  machine  to  the  other  is  to  save 
time  in  changing  and  setting  dies. 

The  bulldozer,  as  well  as  the  forging-machine,  is  a  machine 
that  should  be  in  every  blacksmith-shop  where  there  is  a  large 
quantity  of  bending  and  forming  to  be  done,  such  as  draw-bar 
straps  for  passenger  or  freight  cars,  arch-bars  for  freight  or 
tender  trucks,  side  sill  steps,  uncoupling  levers,  carry  irons, 
corner  irons,  links  and  a  large  quantity  of  other  wrought-iron 
work  that  is  used  on  cars  and  locomotives. 

The  face  of  the  machine,  which  is  constantly  in  use  in  the 
Sacramento  blacksmith-shop,  is  14  inches  high,  5  feet  4  inches 
wide,  and  has  two  grooves  running  the  width  of  the  face,  cut 
out  the  same  as  the  grooves  in  the  bed  of  a  planer. 

We  have  two  rollers,  simply  constructed,  that  we  fasten  to 
the  face  of  the  machine  with  the  bolts  slipped  in  the  grooves. 
Consequently  we  can  shift  these  rollers,  to  bend  straps,  from 
j£  inch  width  of  opening  up  to  $  feet.  When  any  material 
has  to  be  bent  at  right  angles,  we  slip  one  of  the  rollers  on. 
The  plates  on  the  back-stop  of  the  machine  is  constructed 
similarly  to  the  face-plate,  and  we  fasten  all  dies,  formers,  and 
mandrels  for  this.  The  material  is  held  in  the  formers  or 
mandrels,  before  bending,  by  a  hinged  clamp  made  for  the 
purpose.  The  bulldozer  used  is  a  No.  7,  and  is  large  enough 
for  all  railroad  purposes. 

A  Rock-Drill  Used  as  a  Steam-Hammer 

The  drill,  minus  the  tripod,  was  fastened  to  a  vertical 
support  about  as  shown  in  the  sketch,  Fig.  254,  which  was 
drawn  from  memory,  no  attempt  being  made  to  show  an 


272 


DROP-FORGING,    blE-SINKING,    ETC. 


exact  picture,  but  merely  enough  to  convey  an  idea  of  the 
arrangement.  An  ordinary  anvil  was  fixed  in  a  position 
under  the  ram,  and  the  necessary  air  connections,  not  shown, 
were  made  with  the  cylinder.  When  a  blacksmith  has  some 
heavy  hammering  to  do,  he  has  some  one,  as  usual,  to  manage 
this  contrivance,  while  the  smith  takes  care  to  have  the  blows 
struck  in  the  proper  places  as  with  a  steam-hammer,  except 
that  the  blows  are  not  as  heavy,  but  still  more  numerous  for 


FIG.  255. — Shear  for  cutting  off  iron. 

a  given  space  of  time.  At  the  time  I  saw  this  improvised 
steam  (?)  hammer  in  operation,  the  smith  was  working  down 
a  piece  of  steel  or  wrought  iron,  about  3  inches  wide  at  its 
widest  part,  1  inch  thick  at  its  thickest  part,  2^2  feet  long, 
tapering  in  both  width  and  thickness,  and  the  hammer  ap- 
peared to  be  doing  excellent  service.  It  appeared  to  me  as 
being  a  very  simple,  effective,  and  quite  inexpensive  appa- 
ratus, and  that  if  at  any  time  it  be  thought  convenient  to 
discontinue  the  use  of  this  rig  as  a  "steam"  hammer,  it  could 


MACHING-FORGING    METHODS   AND    PROCESSES 


273 


be  very  easily  resolved  into  the  original  parts  and  their  former 
duties  resumed,  since  neither  drill  nor  anvil  suffers  any  from 
this  somewhat  unusual  use. 

Shear  for  Cutting  Off  Iron 

The  sketches  (Figs.  255,  256)  shown. here,  are  of  a  shear  to 
be  used  on  a  steam-hammer.  In  a  shop  where  there  are  no 
shears  this  will  be  found  to  be  a  very  valuable  tool  for  cutting 


FIG.  256. — Shear  for  cutting  off  iron 

off  iron  cold.  This  sketch  represents  one  of  the  shears  I  am 
using  for  cutting  off  iron  from  y2  to  I  fa  inches  round.  I 
also  have  one  for  cutting  off  two  inches  round  and  one  for  flat 
iron.  I  have  an  800-pound  hammer  with  which  I  can  cut 
two-inch  round  or  four  by  one-inch  flat  iron  with  two  or  three 
blows. 

The  upper  view  in  Fig.  256  shows  the  tool  as  put  to- 
gether. The  lower  view  shows  the  details.  I  have  given  no 
sizes,  for  the  reason  that  it  will  have  to  be  made  to  conform 
with  the  size  of  the  hammer  on  which  it  can  be  used.  A  is 


274  DROP- FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

the  base  that  fits  loosely  on  the  bottom-die  of  the  hammer, 
A  being  a  right  side  view  of  the  piece.  It  is  a  steel  casting. 
B  is  the  bottom  knife,  which  fits  in  the  base  and  is  held  in 
place  with  two  ^-inch  tap  bolts  marked  F.  C  is  the  top  knife, 
which  works  loosely  between  bottom-knife  and  side  of  base, 
and  is  held  in  place  by  a  spring  on  each  side,  a  hole  being  drilled 
in  the  bottom  of  the  knife  and  in  the  bottom  of  base,  as  per 
sketch,  large  enough  to  receive  the  bent  ends  of  spring  loosely. 
The  knives  are  made  of  shear  steel.  The  springs,  E,  are 
made  of  ^-inch  round  spring  steel.  The  guide-plates  for 
springs  on  end  of  base  marked  D  are  made  of  A  or  X  mcn 
tank  steel,  and  are  held  in  place  by  four  y2  -inch  tap  bolts,  as 
shown.  Narrow  slots  cut  in  these  two  plates  allow  the  spring 
to  work  up  and  down.  The  cutting  edges  of  the  knives 
should  be  filed  back  a  trifle  for  clearance  to  make  them  cut 
better. 


CHAPTER  IX 

MACHINE-FORGING,    WITH     EXAMPLES    OF    MODERN    PRACTISE    AND 
TOOLS    INVOLVED 

Machine-Forging 

THE  progress  in  machine-forging,  or  in  the  use  of  machin- 
ery for  forging  operations,  has^  been  very  great  in  the  last 
thirty  years.  The  greater  part  of  the  work  for  car  and  loco- 
motive construction  now  done  by  machines,  such  as  bolt- 
headers,  bulldozers,  steam-hammers  and  others,  was  before 
that  done  by  hand.  Those  tools  that  have  come  into  use  are 
the  greatest  factors  in  producing  forgings  for  cars.  One  for- 
ging-machine  and  a  good  man  to  run  it  can  produce  more  for- 
gings than  ten  fires  can  turn  out  in  the  same  time  with  only 
one  hand  at  work,  and  at  the  same  time  the  work  will  be  more 
uniform. 

You  must  get  up  the  dies  yourself  to  suit  the  foj-gings  you 
wish  to  produce,  as  the  machine  is  not  of  much  use  without 
them.  It  is  the  same  way  with  a  steam-hammer — you  can  do 
almost  anything  if  you  have  the  dies  and  formers  to  do  the 
job  with.  In  a  large  shop  it  will  take  almost  the  entire  time 
of  a  foreman  in  studying  up  dies  and  formers  to  do  certain 
jobs  that  come  to  hand '  every  day.  Not  only  that,  but  the 
tools  for  doing  the  work  one  year  will  be  out  of  date  the  next, 
and  as  time  progresses,  the  engines  built  one  year  are  not  the 
same  as  they  will  be  the  next;  and  more  so  with  the  cars.  They 
used  to  be  25,000  pounds  capacity,  now  they  are  100,000 
pounds  capacity.  It  is  the  same  with  engines.  You  take  an 
engine  built  twenty  years  ago  and  put  it  beside  one  that  was 
built  to-day  and  see  the  difference;  and  so  with  all  the  work- 
manship done  on  them,  and  the  tools  to  produce  their  heavy 
forgings.  If  you  have  no  up-to-date  tools,  you  cannot  build 

275 


276 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


cars  or  locomotives  in  a  railroad-shop  and  compete  with  the 
manufacturers. 

For  instance,  if  all  cars  had  to  have  Janney  couplers  on  a 
certain  date  and  your  company  had  a  great  many  cars  to  equip, 
and  were  netting  about  2,000  draw-bar  stems  per  month,  and 
you  had  no  bolt-header  large  enough  to  make 
them.  To  weld  a  collar  on  them  by  hand 
is  out  of  the  question,  as  with  one  fire  the 
best  you  can  do  is  thirty-five  or  forty  per 
day.  You  decide  to  work  them  under  the 
steam-hammer.  To  handle  the  bottom  head- 
ing tool  put  up  a  post  by  the  hammer;  the 
top  header,  forming  the  head,  a  piece  of 
round  machine-steel  about  4-^  inches  in  di- 
ameter and  5  inches  long,  with  the  shape  of 
the  head  carved  in  the  center  of  it.  After 
you  drop  your  stem,  with  welding  heat,  in 
the  bottom  tool,  you  put  the  top  header  on 
the  iron  (your  bottom  header  will  keep  the 
top  in  the  center  of  the  stem),  you  hit  it  two 
blows  with  the  steam-hammer,  then  turn  it 
over  and  drive  it  out  the  same  way,  making 
a  perfect  head  in  center  of  stem.  By  put- 
ting four  or  five  apprentice  boys  heating 
them  in  hollow  fires,  you  can  head  up  700 
stems  per  day  and  punch  them  in  the  same 
manner. 

Insert  the  punch  in  the  top  die,  and,  the 
motion  being  so  quick,  you  can  punch  4,000 
or  5,000  stems  before  you  need  to  dress  your 
punch. 

After  getting  all  these  tools  up,  a  change  is  made  in  car- 
building:  to  use  nothing  but  yokes.  Then  study  again  the 
same  as  before.  The  yokes  are  made  out  of  ^  x  4  inch  or  1  x 
4  inch,  with  lips  double  over  the  end,  for  a  shoulder,  like  the 
sketch.  You  simply  take  a  round  coupling  link,  weld  a  han- 
dle on  one  end,  put  a  sharp  fuller  in  place  where  you  want  to 


FIG.  257. — En- 
gine connect- 
ing-rod. 


MACHINE-FORGING    EXAMPLES    OF    PRACTISE 


277 


make  the  bend  for  the  hook,  and  press  down  with  the  top 
die,  which  will  bend  it  over  half-way,  then  take  your  link 
away  and  hit  one  blow,  which  will  complete  the  hook.  To 
bend  it  on  the  other  end,  cast  a  pocket  on  your  top  die,  on 
the  front  of  it;  make  the  bottom  out  of  wrought  iron  as  wide 
as  you  want  the  yoke  and  as  high,  and  i 
drill  in  your  bottom  die  and  bolt  on  so 
as  to  meet  the  pocket  in  top  die  and  lay 
the  yoke.  When  straight  across  the  bot- 
tom former,  let  the  top  die  come  down, 
which  will  bend  your  yoke  the  required 
shape.  In  this  manner  you  can  make 
about  300  yokes  a  day.  This  is  a  good 
tool,  if  you  have  no  bulldozer. 


Manufacturing  Connecting-Rods  for 
Steam-Engines 

The  connecting-rod  is  one  of  the 
most  expensive  parts  of  an  engine — the 
part  that  is  subject  to  more  wear  and 
which  requires  more  repairs  than  any 
other.  Therefore  it  should  be  of  the 
best  material  and  workmanship.  The 
connecting-rods  and  boxes  for  the  en- 
gine under  consideration  were  bought 
from  outside  parties,  who  claimed  to 
manufacture  nothing  else,  and  who  there- 
fore could  sell  to  engine  builders  at  less 
cost  than  they  themselves  could  make 
them.  The  rod  and  boxes  complete 
for  a  10  x  12  inch  engine  cost  $13.50, 
delivered  at  the  engine  works  in  lots  of  twenty-five  or  more. 

The  body  of  these  rods  was  rectangular,  being  about  2>£ 
by  ll/%  inches  at  the  crank  end.  They  were  nicely  milled  all 
over  and  both  ends  had  straps,  gib,  and  key.  The  boxes  were 
brass,  of  rather  an  inferior  quality.  The  workmanship  was 
fairly  good,  perhaps  fully  as  good  as  on  rods  used  generally  on 


FIG.  258. — Forging 
dies  for  connect- 
ing-rods. 


278 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


.0 

< 

T 

i    °    r 

n^j 

X 

A 

AJO 

o 

io 

p 

o 

T 

jo 

!~H 

FIG.  259.— Milling  the 
sides  of  rods. 


agricultural   engines.      The  quality  as  well  as   the  cost  not 
being  satisfactory,  it  was  determined  to  manufacture  the  rods 

at  home,   and,   if  possible,  to  reduce 
the  cost  and  improve  the  quality. 

Fig.  257  shows  the  design  adopt- 
ed. The  body  of  the  rod  was  smooth- 
forged,  and  left  unfinished.  The 
boxes  were  of  good  grade  of  brass. 
The  take-up  was  accomplished  by  the 
wedge  as  shown.  In  detail  the  man- 
ufacture of  the  rod  was  as  follows: 

The  body  of  the  rod  was  forged 
from  a  bar-steel  3^  by  2^  inches 
under  a  steam-hammer,  and  in  order 
to  quickly  bring  the  piece  to  a 
smooth  finish  and  to  uniform  size,  dies  were  made  as  shown 
by  Fig.  258,  the  sunken  die  being  keyed  and  bolted  to  the 
anvil-block,  and  the  male  half  to  the  head  of  a  drop-ham- 
mer. The  bar  of  steel  being  of  the  proper  size  for  the  crank 
end  of  the  piece  without  forging  that  end  of  the  dies  was 
made  large  enough  to  receive  the  bar 
when  hot.  The  body  of  the  rod  and  the 
cross  head  end  was  forged  slightly  smaller 
than  the  die  the  wide  way,  and  slightly 
larger  the  other  way.  After  forging,  the 
piece  was  brought  to  a  bright  red  heat  and 
placed  in  the  die  and  the  hammer  dropped 
on  it,  forcing  the  surplus  thickness  of 
metal  to  fill  the  die,  thus  making  a  smooth 
piece  of  work  and  any  surplus  being  forced 
out  at  the  bar  end.  The  work  was  done 
before  cutting  off  from  the  original  bar, 
thus  avoiding  all  waste.  This  piece  of 
forging  weighed  32  pounds;  the  material 

at  that   time   cost  l#j  cents  per    pound, 
i  i  -       ^A  A  11    i       -u  FIG.  260. — Mill- 

thus  making  60  cents.     A  blacksmith  and         jng   the  ends  of 

helper  together  receiving  $4. 50  per  day         connecting-rods. 


JJJ 


MACHINE-FORGING    EXAMPLES    OF    PRACTISE 


279 


forged  20  rods,  about  22l/2  cents  per  rod.  Adding  to  this  25 
per  cent,  for  fuel  and  repairs,  we  have  a  cost  of  $1.03  each  for 
this  price. 

The  straps  were  made  of  2^  by  1^  inch  steel  weighing 
28  pounds  and  costing  $2  cents.  These  were  cut  from  the 
bar  in  proper  lengths,  heated  in  a  heating  furnace  and  bent  to 


FIG.  261. — Bending  the  straps. 

shape  in  a  bulldozer.  When  evenly  heated  they  were  placed 
in  the  die,  as  shown  in  Fig.  259,  one  end  resting  against 
the  stop  D.  Fig.  259  shows  the  die  and  plunger,  a  section, 
F  F9  being  a  guard  extending  over  the  plunger  to  prevent 
the  piece  which  was  being  operated  upon  from  getting  out 
of  place.  One  revolution  of  the  machine  forced  the  plunger 
forward  and  back  again  to  the  starting-point,  each  revolu- 
tion bending  a  strap  into  shape.  Two  men  using  a  shear 
and  this  machine  could  cut  off,  heat,  and  bend  400  straps 


280 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


per  day  of  ten  hours,  costing  a  little  over  one  cent  each  in 
labor.  Adding  to  this  an  allowance  for  fuel  and  dies 
and  the  cost  of  material,  we  have  the  two  straps  completed  at 
a  total  cost  of  61  cents.  The  method  used  in  bending  these 
straps  was  to  cut  off  sufficient  blanks  of  various  sizes  to  keep 
the  machine  working  a  day  of  two  at  a  time.  In  two  days, 
including  changing  of  dies,  sufficient  straps  could  be  bent  to 
keep  the  works  supplied  for  several  months. 

No   doubt  there  are    many   readers   who   never  saw   or 

heard  of  a  bulldozer.  This 
machine  is  now  extensively 
used  by  builders  of  agricul- 
tural machinery  for  form- 
ing all  varieties  of  shapes. 
It  would  not  probably  pay 
engine  builders  to  put  in 
this  machine  unless  requir- 
ing many  forms  of  bent 
work,  as  such  a  machine 
would  bend  from  eight  to 
twelve  thousand  straps  per 
month,  if  working  on  them 
alone. 

We    now  have  the  for- 
gings  complete  for  a  10  by 


FIG.  262. — Planing  the  ends 
of  rods. 


12  inch  connecting-rod  at  a 
cost  of  $1.64.    The  ends  of 
the  rods   were  finished  on 
all  four  sides   in   a  milling 
machine,    six   at  one  time. 
These  could  be  milled  com- 
plete in  two  hours  at  a  cost  of  40  cents.    Adding  to  this  a 
percentage   for  keeping  up  the  cutters,  etc.,  we  have  a  cost 
of  8  ^2  cents  per  rod. 

The  next  operation  was  finishing  the  ends  of  the  rods. 
This  was  done  in  a  heavy  draw-cut  shaper.  A  chuck  (see 
Fig.  262)  being  bolted  against  the  head  of  the  shaper  and 


MACHINE-FORGING    EXAMPLES    OF    PRACTISE 


281 


holding  six  rods,  they  could  be  planed  on  both  ends  in  1^ 
hours,  costing  in  all  30  cents,  or  5  cents  each.  The  complete 
machining  of  the  rod,  therefore,  cost  13  cents. 

The  straps  were  milled  on  edges,  sides,  and  ends.  In 
order  to  mill  the  edges,  they  were  placed  in  a  chuck,  the  open 
ends  being  kept  from  crushing  by  a  small  jack-screw  in  each 
strap.  In  order  to  mill  the  sides,  they  were  placed  as  shown 
(see  Fig.  253),  the  milled  edge  being  held  against  the  angle 
plate  by  bolts  A  A.  To  mill  the  ends,  two  angle  plates  were 
used,  one  of  them  having  slotted  holes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  254. 
After  all  the  outside  surfaces 
were  milled  they  were  taken 
to  the  shaper  where  the  in- 
side surfaces  were  finished. 
The  shaper  used  in  this  work 
was  a  heavy  drawcut  machine 
—that  is,  one  in  which  the 
cutting  is  done  while  the 
ram  is  moving  inward.  The 
cross-rail  had  an  up-and- 
down  feed.  A  chuck  (Fig. 
257)  was  placed  on  top  of 
the  sliding-head  with  surface 
E  E  resting  against  the  hous- 
ing of  the  machine.  Cutter- 
bar  B  was  attached  to  the  ram,  the  roughing  cutter  W  cutting 
at  both  ends,  the  lip  removing  part  of  the  stock  at  the  end  of 
the  strap.  The  finishing  cut  was  made  with  a  double-end 
cutter  of  exactly  the  width  required,  which  also  cut  away  the 
remaining  stock  at  the  end.  The  milling  and  shaper  work 
was  done  with  a  liberal  supply  of  oil.  Six  sets  of  straps  were 
milled  on  all  the  outside  surfaces  in  six  hours.  The  shaper 
work  required  three  hours.  The  total  cost  in  labor  was  $1.80, 
about  30  cents  per  set. 

The  adjusting  wedges  were  made  from  a  bar  of  cold  rolled 
steel  of  the  proper  size.  This  was  placed  in  a  jig  and  milled 
off  on  one  side  to  the  proper  angle  and  cut  to  length  with  a 


••  t 

1 
1 

—  i 

; 

j 

FIG.  263. — Machining  inside 
surface  of  rods. 


282  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 

slitting  saw.  These  were  made  in  large  lots  at  a  labor  cost 
of  3  cents  each. 

The  brass  boxes  for  each  end  were  cast  in  one  piece.  The 
weight  of  these  per  set  was  8  pounds.  Brass  casting  at  that 
time  cost  15  cents  per  pound,  making  the  cost  per  set  $1.20. 
They  were  bored  and  faced  in  a  turret  lathe,  then  placed  in  a 
jig  in  a  double  spindle  milling-machine,  and  milled  on  all 
four  sides  to  fit  the  straps.  They  were  afterward  cut  in  two 
with  a  sliding  saw.  These  boxes  were  machined  in  lots  of 
from  50  to  100,  the  labor  cost  being  20  cents  per  set. 

Each  connecting-rod  required  four  bolts  for  bolting  the 
straps  to  the  body  of  the  rod,  and  two  bolts  for  the  adjusting 
wedges.  These  were  made  in  a  turret-machine  from  hexagon 
stock,  costing  in  labor  25  cents  and  in  material  17  cents.  Jigs 
were  made  for  drilling  the  straps,  the  body  of  the  rod  and  the 
adjusting  wedges.  Drilling  these  cost  30  cents. 

The  assembling  of  the  various  parts  was  done  by  the  piece, 
for  which  75  cents  per  rod  was  paid.  This  work  included 
smoothing  up  the  sharp  corners,  tapping  the  holes  in  the 
wedges,  and  fitting  the  boxes  to  the  straps.  The  various  items 
of  cost  were: 

Forgings,  including  material  for  the  adjusting  wedges.  .$1.69 

Machining  rod  body 13 

Machining  straps 30 

Machining  wedges 03 

Brass  boxes 1.20 

Machining  boxes 20 

Material  for  bolts 25 

Making  bolts 17 

Drilling 30 

Assembling .75 

.$5.02 

Adding  25  per  cent,  for  the  shop  expense  we  have  total 
cost  $6.27-. 

In  this  chapter  I  have  described  the  tools  and  methods 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  some  parts  of  a  10  by  12  inch 


MACHINE-FORGING    EXAMPLES    OF    PRACTISE 


283 


engine,  by  means  of  which  the  plant  was  brought  up  from  a 
non-paying  condition  to  a  very  profitable  one. 

The  smaller  parts,  of  which  there  has  been  no  mention 
inade,  were  all  machined  in  the  usual  way,  the  work  on  them 
being  done  by  the  piece. 

Die  for  Turning  Eye- Bolts 

The  accompanying  sketches  (Figs.  265,  266)  show  an  eye- 
bolt  bender  for  the  bulldozer  or  header.  We  found  ourselves 
in  a  position  where  we  had  to  bend  about  9,000 
eyes  of  ^  inch  stock  per  season, 
and  the  dies  shown  does  the  work 
with  an  increased  output  of  about 
300  per  cent. 

At  a  is  the  body  of  the  die, 
and  at  b  and  c  are  projections 
from  its  face,  their  inner  edges 
and  tops  being  planed,  as  was  the 
space  between  them.  A  plate  d 
bridges  over  b  and  c,  and  a  tool- 
steel  slide  c,  shaped  on  one  end  to 
fit  one  side  of  the  eye  and  on  the 
other  left  straight,  except  the  bev- 
eling of  one  corner  as  shown, 
fits  the  space  between  b,  c,  and 

d.  At  f  and  g  are  two  additional  projections,  and  at  h  is  a 
jaw  fitted  with  a  hardened  steel  face  held  down  with  two  %- 
inch  cap-screws  and  fitted  with  two  adjusting  screws,  as  shown. 
The  pin  /,  around  which  the  eye  is  formed,  is  arranged  to  be 
withdrawn  during  the  back-stroke  of  the  bulldozer.  It  is 
made  of  tool-steel  .and  is  hardened,  as  is  the  bushing  in  the 
plate  d.  To  turn  different  sizes  of  eyes  suitable  slides,  pins, 
and  bushings  are  made. 

The  stock  is  entered  at  right  of  the  pin  /  to  the  gage,  and 
the  ram/  enters  between  the  jaw  h  and  slide  e  and,  of  course, 
forces  the  latter  toward  the  pin  and  partly  forms  the  eye,  leav- 
ing the  surplus  stock  sticking  out  in  a  horizontal  position, 


FIG.  264.  —  Machining   in- 
side surface  of  rods. 


284 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


when  the  tool-steel  ram  k  completes  the  turning  by  engaging 
with  the  incline  on  piece  /. 

About  4,000  1-inch  eyes  of  A-inch  stock  are  bent  cold 
per  day  of  nine  hours. 

Forging  with  Dies  in  a  Railroad  Shop 

While  in  the  repair  shops  of  the  Lehigh  Valley  Railroad 
Company,  at  South  Easton,   some  interesting  methods  and 

tools  were  observed,  which,  as  time- 
savers,  deserve  to  be  noticed  here. 

In  a  blacksmith-shop  a  200- 
pound  Bradly  hammer  was  kept  in 
constant  use,  dies  of  different  forms 
being  employed  on  a  variety  of 
work.  These  dies  were  not  of  ex- 
pensive drop-die  order  steel,  profiled 
to  shape  and  hardened — but  were 
plain  cast-iron  blocks,  with  the  de- 
sired shape  cast  in  their  faces. 

One  pair  of  dies  were  doing 
some  very  creditable  work  forging 
straight  peen-hammers,  of  which 
several  hundred  per  year  are  used 
around  the  shops  and  on  the  en- 
gines of  this  road.  The  stock  for 
these  were  an  inch  and  a  quarter,  and 
cut  long  enough  for  two  hammers, 
which  were  roughed  out,  and  the 
eye  formed  at  the  rate  of  ten  or 
twelve  per  hour.  Figs.  261  to  263 
show  the  dies  and  successive  op- 
erations under  the  hammer.  The 
punch  P  for  the  eye  is  of  hardened 
steel,  and  is  screwed  into  the  upper  die,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
261.  The  corners  of  the  stock  are  first  broken  down  in 
recess  1,  leaving  the  piece  as  shown  at  by  Fig.  263,  then 
the  peen  is  formed  in  recess  2,  the  pieces  being  turned  over 


0! 


e    I 


o! 


FIG.  265. — Bending  eye- 
bolts  in  bulldozer. 


MACHINE-FORGING    EXAMPLES    OF    PRACTISE 


285 


during  the  operation,  after  which  the  eye  is  formed  by  hold- 
ing in  265  and  punching  one-half  way  through  from  each 
side;  in  this  way  c,  Fig.  265,  is  produced. 

A  second  heat  is  now  taken,  and  the  other  end  worked  up 
in  like  manner.  After  separating,  .it  is  necessary  to  drift  out 
the  eyes  and  dress  up  the  ends;  very  little  work,  however,  is 
required,  as  a  man  can  finish  up  four  or  five  of  these  forgings 


FIG.  266. — Bending  eye-bolts  in  bulldozer. 

in  an  hour.     It  occurred  to  me  that  a  blacksmith's  chisel  could 
be  cheaply  formed  in  the  same  dies. 

A  die  for  working  tapers  of  any  angle  in  flat-iron  or  steel 
has  recently  been  brought  into  use,  and  gives  very  good  results 
as  far  as  we  tried.  The  device  is  very  simple.  It  consists  of  a 
lower  and  upper  die  with  a  loose  semicircular  piece  A,  Figs. 
270  and  271,  which  is  free  to  slide  in  the  recess  cast  in  the 
lower  die-block.  This  sliding  block  is  of  hardened  steel  and 
forms  the  working-face  of  the  lower  die.  The  upper  die  is  a 


286 


DROP- FORGING,     DIE- SIN  KING,    ETC. 


plain  flat  surface.  As  long  as  the  two  faces  are  parallel  the 
work  will  be  parallel,  but  if  one  end  of  the  work  be  lowered 
the  loose  block  will  be  on  its  seat,  thus  producing  the  angle 
with  the  upper  face,  as  shown  in  Fig.  270  where  a  piece  of 
work  is  being  drawn  taper.-  As  this  angle  is  under  the  control 
of  the  workman,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  varying  angles,  and 


p 

f_J^3       /*\ 

« 

~[Ur~5 

3 

^  V 

268 


Sectiun  cm  A  £ 


267 


269 


270 


271 


FIGS.  267  to  271. — Forging  straight  peen-hammers. 

thus  varying  tapers,  can  be  produced  at  will  without  separate 
dies.  The  loose  block  cannot  be  forced  out  of  it,  as  the  metal 
in  front  of  the  block  in  lower  die  acts  as  a  stop  when  the 
work  is  held  too  low. 

The  writer  was  shown  a  pair  of  brakes  which  had  been 
forged  with  these  dies,  the  two  ends  being  drawn  out  to  a  dif- 
ferent taper,  as  shown  in  Fig.  270,  and  they  were  most  satisfac- 
tory— the  surface  being  smooth  and  free  from  hammer-marks. 


MACHINE-FORGING   EXAMPLES   OF    PRACTISE 


287 


The  Advantage  of  Special  Tools  in  Forging 

The  sketches  in  whole  Fig.  272,  numbered  Figs.  1  to  9, 
illustrate  how,  with  special  tools,  work  can  be  done  in  the 
forge  by  so-called  unskilled  labor,  and  also  how  skilled  labor, 


FIG.  2  j  FIG.  9    3»< 

FIG.  272. — Forging  with  special  tools  and  unskilled  labor. 

without  special  tools,  even  although  the  work  produced  will 
only  occupy  the  same  time,  cannot  compete  in  cost  with  the 
combination  of  tools  and  unskilled  labor. 

Fig.  4  is  a  tie-rod  which  is  a  part  of  the  Westinghouse 
air-brake  gear,  as  supplied  to  the  New  Zealand  railways. 
This  part  was  formerly  made  in  the  old  way.  The  ends  or 
eyes  were  forged  and  then  welded  to  a  ^j-inch  rod  to  the  re- 


288 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


quired  length.  This  involved  two  separate  forgings  and  two 
welds,  and  the  smith  had  hard  work  to  make  this  job  pay  at 
6^  pence,  or  13  cents  a  piece.  Later  on,  another  firm  took 
up  this  class  of  work  and  it  was  then  run  through  in  the 
following  manner: 

A  set  of  cup-dies,  to  fit  a  bolt-heading  machine,  was  made 
and  fitted  as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  as  familiar  to  most  of  us.  The 
block  a  is  in  two  parts,  and  these  are  3  inches  apart  when  the 
machine  is  at  rest.  The  heated  ron  is  inserted  against  the  face 
of  fixed  block  b  and  up  against  a  stop,  not  shown,  which  deter- 
mines the  length  required  to  form 
the  head.  The  cam  is  engaged, 
the  die-block  closes  on  the  rod  au- 
tomatically, holding  it  tight,  and 
the  moving  head  comes  forward 
and  presses  the  rod  into  the  die  j, 
forming  a  complete  ball.  These 
dies  are  made  of  tool-steel  and 
hardened,  the  gripping  surfaces  be- 
ing rough.  When  the  furnace  was 
properly  going,  the  fuel  used  being 
oil,  60  heads  per  hour,  or  30  rods 
could  be  figured  on.  The  rods 
were  heated  for  about  six  inches 
along  the  end,  and  the  operator, 
who  was  a  smith's  helper,  assisted 
by  a  boy,  made  them  to  a  length  gage,  the  greatest  allowable 
error  of  which  was  TV  inch  either  way,  the  length  of  the  rods 
used  being  carefully  determined  beforehand  by  experiment. 

These  headed  rods  were  next  handled  by  the  300-pound 
drop-stamp,  and  Fig.  2  shows  the  dies  for  stamping  the  eye, 
and  also  how  the  lower  half  die  is  held  on  the  hammer-base. 
The  corners  of  the  gray-iron  holder  are  cut  away  at  an  angle 
of  60  degrees,  so  as  to  permit  of  a  slight  rotative  adjustment, 
the  sides  also  have  a.  slope  upward  so  that  the  holder  is  held 
against  its  seat  by  the  adjusting  screws.  This  is  very  conve- 
nient for  the  operator  in  adjusting  his  dies,  and  helps  to  lessen 


Order  issued                                March-20-04 

Material  req'd  soft  Steel  Ji'dia.  100^'loag 

issued  from  stores  in  300  lota. 

Heading  die                                   B.I.  31 

^Si{     DIES                     D2.34 

Trimming 

Shipped              Aprl!  7,  '04 

300 

"28    .. 
May   IB     .. 

-m~ 

Juno    2     •• 

343 

..      20    •• 

300 

July     5     - 

231 

..      19    .. 

306 

312 

••       15    " 

301    , 

-      29    " 

Sept.    17    •• 

414 

TOTAL 

3403 

Average  Weight  1CV$ 

er.pteceJJi 

ToUl            •'     5623i 

Heading  .yt  pec  103     ) 

Stamping  7/6  per  100   \    ~ 

FIG.  273. — Time-card  for 
the  forging-shop. 


MARCH    14,  -  05 


ORDER  No.  F.W.168 


Name  of  piece  Tie-rod 


MACHINE- FORGING    EXAMPLES    OF    PRACTISE  289 

the  weight.  The  dies  were  made  from  tool-steel  and  carefully 
hardened  so  as  to  avoid  leaving  a  curved  surface.  A  groove, 
TV  inch  deep  and  ^  inch  broad,  was  milled  all  around  the 
edges  of  the  dies  and  y%  inch  from  it,  as  indicated  at  d.  This 
was  done  to  make  sure  the  dies  would  come  close  together  and 
also  to  provide  a  space  for  the  " flash "  or  fin  to  flow  into. 
These  heads  were  brought  to  a  welding  heat  in  an  oil  furnace 
and  stamped  to  a  length  gage. 

Fig.  3  shows  the  trimming-die  which  sheared  off  the  flash. 
This  was  made  of  tool-steel  and  given  a  taper  of  3  degrees. 
It  could  not  be  fitted  to  the  ordinary  trimming-press  owing  to 
the   length  of  the  rod,  so 
the  trimming  was  done  in 
the     following     manner. 
When  the  eye  was  stamped 
the      operator's     assistant 
placed    the    trimming-die, 
w7hich    was    comparatively 
light  to  handle,  on  top  of 

the  lower  half  of  the  stamp- 

j.  j  .  ,  FIG.  274. — Time-card  for  the 

ing-die  and  to   one  side.  forging-shop. 

The   eye  was  then  placed 

in  position  by  the  operator,  and  with  a  slight  blow  from  the 
top  the  flash  was  sheared.  With  the  eye  still  inside  the  die 
he  pushed  the  trimming-die  off  the  stamping-block,  then, 
quickly  turning  the  rod  which  he  held  in  his  hands,  the  trim- 
ming-die dropped  off  on  to  a  plate  placed  to  receive  it,  so  that 
the  eye  passed  completely  through  and  came  out  at  the  bottom 
side  of  the  die. 

Great  trouble  was  experienced  in  getting  the  centers  of  the 
tie-rods  correct.  Even  with  a  rigid  gage  attached  to  the  base 
of  a  drop-stamp  which  held  one  eye  while  the  other  was  being 
stamped,  the  error  would  sometimes  be  as  much  as  ^V  inch, 
and  as  the  holes  in  the  eyes  were  drilled  at  the  same  time  to 
exact  distance  they  appeared  to  be  out  of  center  with  the  eye. 
To  overcome  this  the  stamping-dies  which  were  plain  were 
discarded,  and  a  new  set  was  made  with  a  centering  dowel,  as 


Used  on  air  brake  for  4  wheel  MOck 


-290 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


FIG.  275. — Ten-thousand-ton  hydraulic  press. 


MACHINE-FORGING    EXAMPLES    OF    PRACTISE  291 

shown  at  e,  Fig.  2,  which  did  away  with  the  drilling  jig 
and  as  the  drill  followed  the  stamped  hole,  as  indicated  at 
f,  Fig.  4,  the  error,  if  any,  appeared  in  the  center  to  cen- 
ter distance  and  not  in  the  eye.  Owing  to  the  saving  of 
material  by  this  method,  the  heading-dies  were  reduced  from 
1  Y±  to  l'$£  inches,  and  the  rods  were  cut  1  ^  inches  shorter, 
which  on  a  large  quantity  meant  a  considerable  saving. 

Forging  Without  Special  Tools 

The  tools  shown  in  Figs.  6,  7,  and  8  and  also  the  numbered 
operations  illustrate  the  very  best  method  of  making  a  similar 
tie-rod  of  short  length  under  a  steam-hammer  by  a  skilled 
smith.  The  rod  is  made  in  one  heat.  The  material  is  heated 
in  the  bar  form  and  cut  off;  then,  by  means  of  swages,  Fig. 
6,  it  is  roughed  out  as  shown  in  operation  1.  Next,  one  eye  is 
formed,  and  then  the  other,  by  the  repeated  application  of 
swages,  Fig.  7,  and  the  hammer  itself.  Then  the  finishing 
swages,  Fig.  8,  are  used  to  bring  the  rod  to  correct  length,  the 
tai Is  gg  being  cut  off  at  an  anvil.  I  have  watched  the  piece 
made  in  this  manner  many  times,  and  have  seen  a  forging  laid 
down  complete  before  the  color  had  left  it.  I  have  also 
watched  this  piece  being  made  by  the  former  method  as  de- 
scribed and  the  results  were  a  reduction  of  80  per  cent,  on  the 
cost  of  production  by  the  latter  method.  There  were  no 
special  tools  in  the  latter  case,  as  the  swages  used  are  in  every- 
day use  for  general  work  in  the  forge. 

The  skill  of  the  smith  has  thus  been  replaced  by  means  of 
tools  which  eliminate  all  inaccuracy,  the  necessary  handling 
being  done  by  the  operators  who  are  boys  and  smith's  helpers. 

Figs.  273  and  274  illustrate  a  time-card'  for  the  forging- 
shop. 

Ten  Thousand  Ton  Press  at  the  Dusseldorf  Exhibition 

The  illustration  (Fig.  275)  shows  a  steam  and  hydraulic 
press,  a  model  of  which  is  exhibited  in  Dusseldorf,  and  the 
original  of  which  exerts  the  trifling  pressure  of  10,000,000 
kilograms,  or  22,-000,000  pounds.  These  presses,  which  are 


292  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

made  by  the  Kalker.  Werkzeugmaschinenfabrik,  are  princi- 
pally for  forging  and  bending  armor  plates.  There  are  three 
separate  compressors  and  three  separate  ram-cylinders;  and 
they  are  so  connected  that  all  three  compressors  act  on  all 
three  press-cylinders,  or  any  one  or  two  thereof  on  all  three 
cylinders.  This  enables  the  employment  of  the  entire  pressure 
of  10,000  tons,  or  of  two-thirds  or  of  one-third  thereof, 
according  to  the  need.  The  stroke  is  also  widely  adjustable 
at  will.  To  give  a  slight  idea  of  the  dimensions  of  these 
presses  (two  such  are  at  work  in  European  shops)  it  may  be 
said  that  the  rear  columns,  which  are  each  17  meters  in 
length,  weighs  150  gross  tons,  and  the  three  hydraulic- 
cylinders,  that  together  with  the  steel-plate  between  them 
make  up  the  upper  platen,  as  much  more.  The  lower  platen, 
which  is  built  up,  weighs  about  400  gross  tons.  The  pla- 
tens are  held  to  the  columns  by  sixteen  nuts,  each  of  1,200 
mm.  (47  inches)  diameter,  and  whose  united  weight  is  about 
50  gross  tons. 


CHAPTER  X 

HYDRAULIC    FORGING    METHODS,    AUTOGENOUS    WELDING    AND 
GENERAL    SHOP    PRACTISE 

Hydraulic  Forging 

ONE  of  the  great  helps  in  making  the  modern  automobile 
a  commercial  success  was  the  advent  of  drop-forging.  Imag- 
ine the  thousands  of  automobiles  built  every  year,  fitted  with 
hand-forgings — the  very  idea  looms  up  before  us  as  prepos- 
terous. Little  perception  is  required  to  see  that  this  branch 
of  forging  has  attained  a  high  position  among  the  mechanical 
arts,  and  has  prospects  of  further  development  and  a  wider 
range  of  usefulness  in  the  future. 

The  essential  features  of  drop-forging  are  a  top  and  bottom 
die;  each  die  containing  half  an  impression  of  the  forging 
desired,  and  means  of  raising  and  dropping  the  top  die  so  that 
the  heated  bar  held  between  them  can  be  hammered  into 
shape.  This  latter  is  accomplished  with  the  drop-hammer. 

The  action  produced  on  the  heated  metal  by  the  blows 
delivered  by  the  top  die  is  peculiar  to  all  hammers,  whether 
they  be  small  ones  in  the  hands  of  a  man  or  a  large  steam- 
hammer.  This  action  consists  principally  in  stretching  the 
surface  of  the  heated  bar  more  than  the  interior,  hence  the 
metal  has  a  tendency  to  flatten  under  the  strain  and  action  of 
the  dies.  At  times  it  is  with  difficulty,  and  after  the  repeti- 
tion of  many  blows,  that  the  heated  bar  is  made  to  perfectly 
fill  the  impression  in  the  dies.  Herein  lies  the  cause  which 
restricts  this  useful  art  of  forging  to  certain  shapes,  and,  there- 
fore, sometimes  limits  its  scope. 

There  is,  however,  another  branch  of  forging  that  at  pres- 
ent is  not  as  highly  developed  as  drop-forging,  but  promises 

293 


294 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


fD   0 


soon  to  be  as  important.  I  refer  to  that  branch  known  as 
hydraulic-forging  where,  with  the  aid  of  dies,  a  piece  of  heated 
steel  or  iron  is  pressed  or  made  to  flow  into  the  desired  shape. 

Description  of  Hydraulic  Press 

For  the  benefit  of  those  who  are  not  familiar  with  a  for- 
ging-machine  or  press,  a  description  of  one  will  be  given  here. 
We  will  describe  a  large  press.  Most  forgings  made  by  pres- 
sing in  shaped  dies  can  be  produced  on  a  small  press.  The 

smaller  the  press  used  for  accomplish- 
ing your  work  the  greater  the  econ- 
omy. 

Embodied  in  the  press-proper  is 
an  operating  plunger.  This  is  pulled 
back  after  performing  its  stroke  by  a 
plunger.  A  platen  is  made  movable 
to  facilitate  the  handling  of  heavy 
dies.  The  dies  are  secured  to  the 
plunger  and  platen  by  means  of  bolts 
in  tee  slots.  The  press  is  usually  op- 
erated by  500  pounds  water-pressure. 
When  greater  pressure  is  required  an 
intensifier  on  the  left  of  the  press  is 
used. 

It  differs  from  the  drop-forging  method  in  that  the  force  is 
comparatively  slowly  and  steadily  applied.  One  stroke  visually 
suffices,  while  in  the  drop-forging  method  bars  often  receive 
dozens  of  blows  and  frequently  are  reheated  several  times. 
The  action  or  motion  of  the  heated  steel  in  the  dies  is  the 
secret  of  better  metal  in  the  forgings.  In  Fig.  277  is  shown  a 
heated  piece  of  round  bar  between  two  dies.  As  the  top 
piece  is  forced  downward  the  metal  flows,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines.  The  reason  it  assumes  this  shape,  instead  of 
that  of  a  perfect  cylinder,  is  on  account  of  the  friction  between 
the  faces  of  the  dies  and  the  metal,  which  sometimes  restricts 
the  flow  of  the  metal  next  to  the  faces  of  the  dies. 

By  making  an  impression  in  the  dies,  as  shown  in  Fig. 


FIG.   276. — Forging 
practise. 


FORGING,    WELDING,    AND    GENERAL    SHOP    PRACTISE        295 

278,  we  get  a  different  result.  The  ends  increase  in  diameter 
on  account  of  the  impression  in  the  dies,  and  thus  the  flow  is 
entirely  confined  to  the  center.  As  the  die  continues  to  de- 
scend the  central  portion  increases  in  diameter  but  decreases 
in  thickness,  and  is  gradually  formed  into  a  flange,  as  shown 
by  the  dotted  lines. 

Next  let  us  deepen  the  impression  in  the  bottom  die  and 
use  a  plain  cylindrical  top  die,  as  shown  in  Fig.  279.  As  the 
top  die  descends,  the  metal  has  a  tendency  to  flow  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  the  preceding  examples,  but  is  restricted  by  the 
side  walls  of  the  bottom  die.  It  is  compelled,  therefore,^  to 


Metal 


277  278  279 

FIGS.  277  to  279. — Hydraulic  forging  practise. 

flow  through  the  open  space  around  the  top  die  and  makes  a 
cup-shaped  forging. 

By  shaping  the  bottom  die,  and  pointing  the  top  die  or 
punch,  as  shown  in  Fig.  280,  you  have  the  shape  used  for 
making  projectiles.  The  top  punch  must  not  necessarily  be 
circular  in  form,  but  may  be  square,  triangular,  or  any  odd 
shape  that  does  not  weaken  it  or  destroy  its  strength. 

A  good  example  of  this  is  found  in  a  patented  projectile. 
Instead  of  the  cavity  being  smooth  it  is  ribbed,  as  shown  in 
the  cross-section  in  Fig.  281,  the  idea  being,  that  on  account 
of  these  internal  ribs  the  shell  will  be  broken  into  a  larger 
number  of  small  pieces,  and  thus  increase  its  efficiency  as  an 
offensive  weapon.  These  ribs  are  obtained  by  simply  cor- 
rugating the  punch,  which,  of  course,  leaves  corresponding 
impressions  in  the  metal. 

In  Fig.  282  is  another  example  of  simple  forging.      Hun- 


296  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

dreds  of  shafts  with  1-inch  collars  are  needed.  Instead 
of  machining  all  that  metal  or  drawing  it  out  under  a  ham- 
mer, you  simply  heat  one  end  of  the  bar  where  the  collar  is 
wanted,  and  with  one  stroke  of  the  press  squeeze  it  out,  as 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines. 

Examples  of  Production 

These  simple  illustrations  are  merely  suggestions  showing 
the  usefulness  of  this  art  in  the  commercial  world.  By  a  com- 
bination of  different  dies  and  several  operations,  difficult  for- 
gings  of  the  most  intricate  shape  can  be  economically  pro- 
duced, and  with  such  accuracy  and  smoothness  that  only  those 
parts  in  contact  with  their  working  parts  need  machining. 


282 
280 

FIGS.  280  to  282. — Hydraulic  forging  practise. 

The  shapes  shown  in  Fig.  283  are  a  few  of  the  forgings 
that  can  be  produced  by  this  method.  The  only  limit  to  the 
size  of  the  forging  is  the  capacity  of  the  press  used  and  the 
facilities  for  handling  them. 

From  the  sketches  you  will  notice  that  the  dies  for  form- 
ing the  various  shapes  are  not  expensive,  as  they  generally 
consist  of  shapes  that  can  be  produced  by  either  a  lathe  or 
some  other  machine-tool.  Hand-work  seldom  enters  into 
their  construction.  For  practically  all  shapes  the  bottom  die 
can  be  made  of  a  good  grade  of  iron  cast  approximately  to 
size,  finishing  only  the  base  and  the  impression. 

Dies  of  the  kind  shown  in  Figs.  279  and  280  must  have  a 
slight  taper  to  facilitate  the  removal  of  the  forging.  This, 
however,  needs  to  be  very  small,  as  the  steel  immediately  com- 


FORGING,    WELDING,    AND    GENERAL    SHOP    PRACTISE         297 


mences  to  cool,  and  in  so  doing  it  contracts  and  loosens  itself. 
The  castings  used  for  this  purpose  must  be  solid  and  free  from 
all  blow-holes,  however  small,  as  the  great  pressure  put  upon 
the  steel  will  force  it  into  minute  holes  and  prevent  the 
forging  from  being  withdrawn. 

The  top  die,  when  it  has  no  piercing  or  punching  to  do, 
may  also  be  made  of  cast  iron,  otherwise  it  is  made  of  steel. 


i 


FIG.  283. — Shapes  produced  by  hydraulic  forging. 

A  good  grade  of  forged  steel  is  then  required,  one  containing 
between  0.60  and  0.70  percent,  of  carbon  has  been  demon- 
strated to  give  excellent  results.  If  lower  in  carbon  they 
bend  and  distort  too  readily  from  the  great  pressure.  If 
higher  in  carbon  they  usually  crack  from  the  alternate  heating 


298 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


and  cooling  of  the  punch,  as  water  is  turned  into  the  dies  after 
each  operation  to  keep  them  below  a  destructive  temperature. 

Proper  Practise  for  Hydraulic  Forgings 

Engineers  who  design  forgings  for  production  by  this 
method  will  be  wise  to  carefully  note  the  following: 

Make  your  punches  practically  straight,  with  a  nice  round- 
ing at  the  bottom,  as  shown  in  Fig.  284.  At  first  glance  the 
punch  in  Fig.  285  would  seem  to  require  less  pressure,  and 
hence  for  a  given  pressure  would  give  the  metal  a  deeper 


284 


FIGS.  284  and  285. — Shaping  of  forging  punches. 

punch.  The  reverse,  however,  is  the  case,  and  the  reason  is 
this:  When  punch  No.  10  enters  the  metal  it  displaces  a  cer- 
tain amount  and  this  must  flow  upward  along  the  side  of  the 
punch.  As  the  punch  continues  to  descend,  the  area  of  the 
opening  at  the  top  of  the  die  is  gradually  growing  smaller, 
due  to  the  taper,  hence  the  metal  must  flow  upward  faster  than 
the  punch  descends  to  compensate  for  the  difference  between 
the  area  of  the  opening  and  the  metal  displaced.  This  would 
make  little  difference  with  a  perfect  liquid,  but  creates  tremen- 
dous friction  with  steel  and  greatly  reduces  the  penetrating 
power  of  a  given  force. 

Again,  assuming  that  the  pressure  applied  to  the  punch  is 
downward,  laying  out  a  parallelogram  of  forces,  we  find  that 


FORGING,    WELDING,    AND    GENERAL   SHOP    PRACTISE         299 

the  resultant  is  divided  into  two  forces,  one  acting  along  the 
face  of  the  punch,  and  the  other  at  right  angles  to  it.  The 
one  at  right  angles  to  the  face  of  the  punch  is  of  no  value  in 
displacing  the  metal,  as  its  power  is  expended  in  jamming  the 
metal  against  the  sides,  tending  to  tear  the  die  apart.  No 
such  conditions  exist  with  a  punch  similar  to  Fig.  284.  Here 
the  area  of  the  opening  around  the  punch  remains  the  same 
during  the  pressing,  and  the  metal  flows  at  a  uniform  rate  of 
speed  as  the  punch  descends.  The  force  tending  to  tear  the 
die  apart  is  small  compared  to  a  greatly  tapered  punch. 

In  this  class  of  forging  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  that 
the  dies  be  of  one  solid  piece.  Many  forgings  require  them 
to  be  split,  and  there  are  cases  where  five  and  six  parts  were 
required  to  complete  one  diameter.  In  such  instances  the 
dies  are  supported  by  an  outer  casing. 

The  variety  of  metals  that  can  be  forged  by  this  method 
is  practically  the  same  as  for  drop-forging  or  hand-forging. 
Wrought  iron  or  steel  low  in  carbon,  say,  from  0.10  to  0.20 
per  cent.,  is  forged  with  the  greatest  facility.  The  grade  of 
steel  commonly  known  as  machinery  steel,  ranging  from  0.30 
to  0.40  per  cent,  carbon,  is  readily  shaped,  while  steels  rang- 
ing from  0.70  to  0.90  per  cent,  carbon  are  forged  daily  in  the 
manufacture  of  projectiles.  Alloy  steels  containing  either 
nickel,  chrome,  or  vanadium,  or  all  three,  are  also  forged  in 
the  manufacture  of  armor-piercing  projectiles,  automobile 
parts,  cutting  tools,  etc.  The  higher  the  grade  of  steel  used 
the  closer  the  attention  required  in  the  heating  prior  to  for- 
ging. Steels  high  in  carbon  and  chrome  cannot  be  made  to 
flow  quite  so  readily  and  require  great  pressure. 

Some  Applications  of  Autogenous  Welding 

The  oxy-acetylene  autogenous  welding  process  found  a 
large  field  in  a  number  of  manufacturing  establishments.  It 
is  most  commercial  in  shops  where  there  is  a  large  variety  of 
work.  It  cannot  compete  with  multiple  machine  riveting  or 
with  expensive  coke  and  gas  welding  installations. 

The  objection  to  a  coke-welding  installation  is  the  high 


300 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


first  cost,  and  the  injurious  oxidizing  effect,  due  to  the  long 
exposure  of  the  hot  metal  to  the  atmosphere. 

On  the  other  side,  a  gas-welding  installation  is  only  suita- 
ble for  very  large  shops,  due  to  the  high  cost  of  the  gas 
generators,  gas-holder,  power-hammers,  and  presses. 

The  problem  in  all  welding  operations  is  to  work  the  hot 
metals  rapidly,  or  to  heat  only  a  small  section  at  one  time. 


\ 


286  287  288 

FlGS.  286  to  288. — Applications  of  autogenous  welding. 

The  oxy-acetylene  process  will  furnish  the  right  temperature 
for  fusing  the  metals,  without  oxidizing  the  joint. 

Heating  Metal  Before  Welding 

The  trouble  that  might  arise,  in  this  welding  process,  is 
that  the  metal  is  too  rapidly  chilled,  which  would  tend  to 
weaken  the  joint. 

This  difficulty  can  be  overcome  by  heating  the  metal  be- 
fore welding;  in  which  case  we  gain  both  better  efficiency  of 
the  joint,  and  higher  speed  in  welding.  It  is  advisable  to 
cover  the  heated  metal  as  much  as  possible,  to  prevent  exces- 
sive radiation,  and  to  protect  the  welder  from  the  high  tem- 
perature. 

In  some  cases,  where  a  high  efficiency  of  the  joint  is 
expected,  it  is  advisable  to  anneal  the  welded  piece  in  a  slow- 
cooling  furnace  for  several  hours. 

It  is  well  known,  that  in  all  rapid  welding,  such  as  elec- 


FORGING,    WELDING,    AND    GENERAL    SHOP    PRACTISE         30 1 


trie,   and  to  some  extent  autogenous  welding,   the  joint  is 
stronger  than  the  section  next  to  the  joint  on  either  side. 

This  can  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  a  molecular  distor- 
tion takes  place  between  the  hot  and  cold  parts,  and  these 
molecules  have  no  time  to  readjust  themselves  before  the 
metal  commences  to  chill.  By  the  preheating  and  annealing 
process  the  distorted  molecules  will 
find  their  proper  place  again,  and  each 
will  take  its  share  of  strain  exerted  by 
an  external  load.  Experiments  prove 
that  with  the  same  ultimate  strength, 
the  annealed  piece  will  show  a  better 
elastic  limit,  and  also  a  better  ductility 
in  the  welded  joint. 


tube  and  flange. 


Fuel  for  Preheating 

The  preheating  can  be  accomplished 
by  natural  gas  or  oil,   or  if   power  is 

cheap,  by  means  of  a  resistance  type  electric  furnace.  The 
latter  method  is  the  most  convenient,  since  it  interferes  least 
with  the  welding  operation. 

Fig.  286  shows  the  method  of  welding  two  angles  together. 

Fig.  287  shows  a  more  com- 
plicated section,  welding  in  a  par- 
tition in  a  tank. 

Fig.  288  shows  the  method  of 
welding  shafts,  or  any  cylindrical 
sections. 

Fig.  289    shows   butt  welding 
of  large  tubes,  at  the  end  of  which 
a  flange  is  welded  on. 
Fig.   290  shows  welding  of  a  top  in  a  cylinder  for  light 
pressures. 

Fig.  291  shows  two  plates  ready  for  welding,  with  scarfed 
edges  necessary  from  y%  inch  up. 

Fig.  292  shows  a  cylinder  with  a  welded  cast-steel  nozzle, 
and  a  forged  flange  welded  at  the  end. 


FIG.  290. — Welding  top 
of  cylinder. 


302 


DROP- FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


Fig.  293  shows  welding  a  dome  in  a  cylinder,  a  flange  at 
the  bottom,  and  an  outlet  at  the  side;  all  for  high  pressures. 

Welding  Conclusions 

The  process  of  autogenous  welding  is  well  adaptable  in 
any  metal  work-shop,  and  will  pay  good  returns  for  the  small 
first  cost,  and  operating  expenses. 

The  welding  operation  is  not  difficult,  but  requires  several 
months  of  practise,  to  turn  out  reliable  work  for  high  pressure. 

The  process  does  not  require  any  expensive  machinery, 
such  as  power-hammers  and  presses. 

Over  1,000  installations  are  in  daily  use  in  Europe,  and 
bring  good  returns  on  the  investment. 

We  believe  that  in  the  next  few  years  a  new  field  will  be 


291 


292  293 

FIGS.  291  to  293. — Welding  cast-iron  nozzle  and  flange  on  cylinder. 

open   for  the  autogenous  welding  process,   in   boiler  shops, 
automobile  works,  tank  and  plate  works. 

Built-up  or  Welded-up  Die  Work 

A  question  that  is  often  asked  me  by  those  about  to  make 
a  lot  of  sheet  metal  working  dies  is  this:  " Shall  we  make 
them  of  solid  steel;  and,  if  so,  what  kind,  and  how  can  we  get 
them  forged  so  as  to  save  stock  and  labor?" 

My  experience  has  been  this:  If  you  have  got  a  smith  who 
knows  his  business  and  can  do  a  good  job,  weld  them  up;  but 
I  have  never  yet  found  more  than  one  or  two  shops  that  could 
do  this  trick  and  be  sure  how  it  was  coming  out.  I  am  well 


FORGING,    WELDING,    AND    GENERAL    SHOP    PRACTISE         303 

aware  that  there  are  two  or  three  firms  in  the  business  who  can 
take,  say  a  12-inch  round  die,  and  weld  up  the  steel  ring,  and 
weld  the  same  on  to  a  wrought-iron  plate,  and  be  sure  of  good 
results,  before  it  leaves  the  smith's  hands,  and  they  can  do  this 
every  day  in  the  week.  If  I  had  a  man  like  that,  I  would  never 
make  another  built-up  die  like  Fig.  294;  but  one  doesn't  find 
such  a  man  on  the  corner  waiting  for  a  job;  he  has  one  already. 

At  one  time  I  had  a  lot  of  dies,  six,  I  think,  to  make,  all 
square  ones;  and,  failing  to  get  good  results  from  the  smith,  I 
ordered  six  blocks  from  the  mill.  They  were  12x14x2  inches 
thick,  one-half  steel  and  one-half  iron.  They  came  in  course 
of  time  (about  sixty  days,  I  believe),  and  they  looked  nice.  I 
started  three  of  them;  cut  out  the  dies  and  hardened  two  of 
them  all  right;  but  the  third  one  parted  in  the  weld,  so  it  was 
useless.  Well,  I  fitted  the  punches  to  the  other  two  and 
started  them  to  work.  By  the  way,  did  you  ever  think  it  was 
a  great  deal  better  to  make  a  die  for  your  own  use  than  for 
somebody  else  to  use?  It  seems  to  work  better,  and  a  com- 
plaint from  the  boss  of  the  press-room  doesn't  sound  so  big  as 
one  that  comes  in  a  letter — especially  if  it  is  a  typewritten  one. 

Well,  the  dies  worked  very  well  until  they  were  worn 
down  to  %  inch  of  steel,  then  one  of  them  began  to  "peel," 
as  the  press-boy  called  it.  The  vibrations  caused  by  the 
punches  started  the  weld  at  one  end  of  the  die,  and  it  kept 
" peeling"  until  it  was  two-thirds  of  the  way  across  and  then 
we  had  to  scrap  it.  The  rest  of  the  blanks  I  had  planed  up 
and  let  the  boys  have  them  for  bench-blocks.  They  were  a 
little  expensive,  but  they  were  good  ones. 

There  was  one  fault  with  these  dies  that  is  common  to  all 
welded  dies,  except  round  ones;  that  is,  the  impossibility  of 
making  a  perfectly  square  blank,  and  the  enlarging  of  the 
blank  caused  by  the  clearance  given  the  die.  To  overcome 
this,  we  finally  made  a  die  like  Fig.  294,  the  sides  and  ends 
of  separate  pieces,  and  the  corner  dovetailed  in.  All  the 
pieces  were  got  out  on  the  shaper,  drilled  and  tapered  for  the 
holding-down  bolts  (not  shown),  then  hardened  and  ground 
to  an  exact  fit,  then  set  in  the  cast-iron  bed,  and  held  in  place 


304  DROP- FORCING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 

by  the  set  screws  shown.  The  cost  of  the  die  was  about  the 
same  as  for  a  solid  die,  and  as  I  could  use  cheaper  labor  for 
most  of  the  work,  but  as  it  did  about  double  the  amount  of 
work  done  by  a  solid  one,  and  the  work  was  far  better,  I 
called  it  a  cheap  die,  and  we  made  the  rest  in  the  same 
manner. 

Now,  I  take  this  view  of  the  matter:  If  I  had  a  smith  that 
could  weld  up  a  12  or  24  inch  ring  on  a  wrought-iron  plate, 
and  be  sure  of  his  work  I  think  it  would  be  cheaper  and  better 
to  do  so,  but  rather  than  take  chances  of  a  second-class  man, 
I  build  them  of  steel  rings  set  in  cast-iron  blocks.  Of  course, 
in  some  cases,  the  cost  of  steel  should  be  taken  into  account; 


FIG.  294.— Built-up  die. 

but  when  the  work  in  the  smithy  costs  eighty  cents  per  hour, 
and  the  steel  seventeen  cents  per  pound,  it  doesn't  seem  to  me 
that  the  cost  of  the  steel  cuts  much  ice  anyway. 

All  the  punches  were  made  solid  and  left  soft,  which  I 
think  is  the  best  way  for  thin  stock. 

General  Practise  for  Hardening  Drop-Dies  of  Various  Steels 

It  was  formerly  considered  necessary  to  make  all  forging 
dies  requiring  to  be  hardened  from  crucible  tool-steel,  but  ex- 
perience has  proved  that  for  certain  classes  of  work  a  good 
grade  of  open-hearth  steel  of  the  proper  carbon  gives  results 
which  justify  its  use.  In  some  shops  this  steel  is  used  alto- 
gether, but  the  results  are  not  very  satisfactory  for  dies  with 
small  projections  or  for  shapes  that  weaken  the  die. 


FORGING,    WELDING,    AND    GENERAL    SHOP    PRACTISE        305 

There  are  various  makes  and  grades  of  both  open-hearth 
and  crucible  steel,  and  a  make  which  gives  satisfaction  in  one 
shop  may  not  do  so  in  another. 

When  heating  for  hardening,  some  hardeners  place  the  die 
in  the  furnace,  face  down,  on  a  layer  of  powdered  charcoal; 
this  is  supposing  that  we  are  using  a  furnace  where  the  die 
does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  fuel.  I  know  a  hardener 
who  gets  excellent  results  heating  in  charcoal  in  an  open  fire, 
built  specially  for  the  purpose.  I  have  had  best  results,  how- 
ever, when  heating  in  furnace — a  case-hardening  furnace 
works  nicely — the  die  being  placed  in  a  box  having  an  inch  or 
so  of  wood  charcoal  or  charred  leather,  preferably  the  latter, 
in  the  bottom.  The  box  should  be  shallow,  so  as  not  to 
come  up  on  the  side  of  the  die  more  than  2  or  3  inches  when 
it  is  resting  on  its  bed  of  charcoal  or  leather. 

The  heat  should  be  applied  strong  enough  to  heat  the  die 
as  rapidly  as  possible  consistent  with  uniform  heating,  and 
no  faster,  or  some  portions  will  become  overheated,  and  this 
will  cause  strains  which  may  cause  the  steel  to  crack  when 
hardened. 

As  there  is  a  tendency  to  heat  the  beveled  edges  of  the 
tang  more  rapidly,  and  to  a  higher  heat  than  the  rest  of  the 
block,  it  is  good  practise  to  fill  in  the  corner  with  fire-clay 
mixed  with  water,  allowing  it  to  dry  before  placing  in  the 
furnace. 

When  the  die  is  uniformly  heated  to  the  proper  heat, 
remove  the  box  from  the  furnace,  then  remove  the  fire-clay 
from  the  corners  of  the  tang.  In  order  to  keep  the  tang  from 
humping  when  the  die  is  hardened,  it  is  best  to  stiffen  the 
tang  before  hardening  the  face.  This  is  done  by  placing  the 
die  on  the  wires  in  the  bath  tang  down,  so  that  the  water  is 
projected  against  it.  While  this  portion  is  cooling,  the 
corners  of  the  die  may  be  slapped  with  a  wet  cloth  to  cool 
them  somewhat  before  hardening  the  face.  Any  very  delicate 
projections  that  are  liable  to  cause  trouble  may  be  oiled  or 
rubbed  with  soap,  to  prevent  the  water  acting  too  quickly  on 
them. 


306  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

When  the  tang  has  cooled  so  that  no  red  can  be  seen,  the 
die  should  be  inverted,  and  the  water  allowed  to  play  on  the 
face.  At  the  same  time  water  should  be  poured  on  the  tank 
until  the  red  has  disappeared  from  the  face,  when  we  should 
cease  cooling  the  tang,  and  allow  the  heat  in  the  center  of  the 
die  to  run  out  through  this  portion. 

The  overflow  in  the  tank  should  be  so  regulated  that  the 
water  will  only  come  up  on  the  face  of  the  die  about  an  inch. 
Of  course,  it  will  be  forced  up  the  sides  of  the  die  by  the  flow 
of  the  water  in  the  supply  pipe. 

The  pipe  delivering  the  water  to  the  die  should  distribute 
it  directly  against  the  whole  face,  rather  than  in  a  solid 
stream,  striking  all  in  one  place.  Make  the  top  of  the  pipe 


£ 


3=3 

m?   vj    o    •    ; 

295  296 

FIGS.  295  and  296. — Piping  for  drop-die  hardening. 

in  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  295;  or  a  perforated  top  to  the 
supply  pipe,  as  shown  in  Fig.  296,  is  excellent. 

In  winter  some  means  should  be  provided  for  removing 
the  chill.  This  can  be  done  by  entering  a  steam-pipe  into 
the  supply,  when  any  desired  degree  of  heat  may  be  obtained. 

To  eliminate,  so  far  as  possible,  the  tendency  of  the  steel  to 
crack  from  internal  strains  set  up  by  the  process  of  cooling, 
the  die  should  be  so  heated  as  to  promote  this  result.  Some 
hardeners  think  it  advisable  to  do  this  by  drawing  the  temper. 
This  seems  to  work  all  right  if  the  heating  is  done  slowly 
enough  for  the  heat  to  penetrate  to  the  center  of  the  block; 
but  if  the  heating  is  rapid,  this  result  is  not  accomplished,  the 
strains  are  still  in  the  steel,  and  may  manifest  themselves  at 
any  time.  The  die  may  crack  after  being  placed  on  the  shelf, 
or  it  may  not  until  some  time  after. 

Knowing  the  tendency  of  large  pieces  of  hardened  steel  to 


FORGING,    WELDING,    AND    GENERAL    SHOP    PRACTISE        307 

crack  from  the  cause  mentioned,  it  is  best  to  take  every  pre- 
caution to  prevent  this.  A  very  inexpensive  method  consists 
in  placing  the  hardened  die  in  a  water-tank  which  has  a  steam- 
pipe  connected  with  it.  Steam  is  let  in  and  the  water  is 
gradually  heated  to  the  boiling-point,  and  kept  there  for  sev- 
eral hours,  when  the  die  may  be  removed  and  the  temper 
drawn.  If  it  is  not  thought  advisable  to  use  this  method, 
place  the  die  where,  to  insure  uniformity  of  heating,  it  will 
heat  slowly,  and  continue  the  heat  until,  when  touched  with 
a  moistened  ringer,  a  snapping  sound  is  heard.  In  order  to 
effectively  avoid  the  tendency  to  crack  from  internal  strains, 
the  heating  must  be  slow  enough  to  insure  the  penetration  of 
the  heat  to  the  piece. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  draw  the  temper  immediately  after 
the  hardening;  when  this  is  the  case  the  greatest,  possible  care 
should  be  exercised.  A  die  having  slender  projections  or 
light,  irregular  portions,  if  heated  faster  than  the  steel  can 
absorb  the  heat  uniformly,  will  of  course  become  hottest  at  the 
lighter  portions,  and  these  expanding  faster  than  the  solid 
portions  adjacent,  will  tear  themselves  away.  Where  there 
are  such  light  projecting  portions,  it  is  often  advisable  to  fill 
the  surrounding  depressions  with  oil;  this  will  prevent  a  too 
rapid  heating  of  the  parts  and  stop  their  "snipping  off." 

Sometimes,  and  for  certain  work,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
harden  the  dies,  but  it  is  still  often  advisable  to  stiffen  the 
steel  somewhat  under  such  conditions.  The  die  may  be 
heated  and  then  cooled  in  oil.  A  bath  of  generous  propor- 
tions should  be  used  having  a  jet  of  oil  coming  up  from  the 
bottom,  this  striking  the  face  materially  aids  in  producing  the 
desired  effect. 

When  open-hearth  steel  which  contains  a  sufficient  amount 
of  carbon  works  well  on  many  dies,  its  use  is  not  advocated 
for  dies  that  must  be  very  strong  or  that  should  retain  their 
sizes,  as  cold-drop  dies.  A  good  grade  of  crucible  die-steel, 
containing  a  higher  percentage  of  carbon  can  be  used  which 
will  harden  much  deeper  and  harder  than  the  open-hearth  of 
lower  carbon. 


308  DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

The  crucible  steel,  being  lower  in  percentage  of  harmful 
impurities,  can  safely  have  a  much  higher  percentage  of 
carbon  and  yet  be  less  liable  to  crack  than  the  open-hearth 
material. 

After  all,  the  real  essential  for  successfully  doing  work  of 
this  kind  is  brains;  it  is  necessary  to  discriminate  between  the 
dies  of  different  sizes  and  shapes,  also  to  judge  correctly  of 
other  conditions,  and  then  act  accordingly. 


CHAPTER  XI 

HIGH-SPEED     STEEL,     DROP,    AND     HYDRAULIC      FORGED      CUTTING 
TOOLS,    DROP-PRESS    PRACTISE,    AND    HARDENING    DROP-DIES 

What  is  Good  Judgment 

A  GREAT  deal  is  heard  of  good  judgment,  and  the  man 
who  possesses  this  quality  commands  a  high  salary.  Often  a 
machine-tool  establishment  which  has  secured  such  a  man,  de- 
pends almost  entirely  on  his  "good  judgment"  for  better  re- 
sults, and  it  is  often  considered  that  with  this  he  can  overcome 
the  lack  of  organization,  cost  system,  or  even  of  plant  equip- 
ment. 

A  manager  with  good  judgment  is  extremely  valuable, 
but  he  must  have  the  tools  with  which  to  work.  If  he  does 
not  obtain  them  a  man  of  less  ability,  with  better  organ- 
ization and  with  better  equipment,  will  outdistance  him. 
The  same  applies  to  the  man  in  the  shop — the  mechanic. 
A  good  mechanic,  to  produce  the  best  work  quickly,  must 
have  good  tools  with  which  to  work.  If  he  is  not  given 
these,  a  less  efficient  man  with  better  tools  can  produce  better 
results. 

Good  judgment,  as  I  see  it,  is  the  application  of  knowl- 
edge gained  by  experience.  This  is  derived  partly  by  direct 
observation,  familiarity  with  the  accomplishments  of  others, 
and  partly  from  statistics  compiled  by  others,  which  have  been 
digested  and  the  valuable  points  retained.  If  the  manager  is 
really  a  man  of  "good  judgment"  he  will  provide  himself 
with  the  organization  and  the  system  which  will  furnish  him 
with  correct  information.  If  the  manager's  works  superin- 
tendent is  a  man  of  "good  judgment"  he.  will  insist  upon  an 

309 


310  DROP- FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,     ETC. 

equipment  of  machines  and  tools  which  will  allow  of  his  me- 
chanics producing  good  work  rapidly. 

High-Speed  Steel  and  Tool-Holders 

An  important  item  in  machine-shop  organization  and  man- 
agement is  the  speed  of  cutting  tools  and  the  use  of  cutting 
tool-holders.  The  speed  of  the  tool  is  limited  by  the  fric- 
tional  heating  of  the  tool,  and  its  consequent  softening  by 
drawing  its  temper,  so  that  for  wrought-iron  and  mild  steel 
the  limits  were  from  10  to  30  feet  per  minute.  Some  increase 
was  made  on  the  introduction  of  a  self-hardening  steel  in  which 
higher  speeds  were  attained.  But  these  tools  were  rapidly 
broken  down  in  wear  or  were  abraided  out  of  shape.  Within 
the  past  ten  years  there  have  been  introduced  various  brands 
of  high-speed  steel,  cutting  three,  four,  and  in  some  cases  even 
six  times  faster  than  the  best  tool-steels  of  the  recent  past,  and 
also  possessing  a  remarkable  durability.  In  some  cases  the 
tools  are  heated  to  a  dull  red  in  the  operation  of  cutting,  while 
the  chips  are  nearly  as  hot.  This  steel  will  stand  long,  severe, 
and  continuous  usage  without  regrinding,  and  this,  together 
with  the  increased  strength,  effects  a  great  saving  in  time  and 
labor,  otherwise  wasted  in  removing,  grinding,  and.  replacing 
the  tool.  Deeper  and  wider  cuts  can  also  be  taken  with  this 
steel,  and  this,  together  with  the  high-speed  results  in  remov- 
ing a  far  greater  weight  of  metal  per  minute  with  a  consequent 
considerable  cheapening  in  the  cost  of  production. 

Speeds  of  from  75  to  100  feet  per  minute  upon  medium 
hard-steel  have  been  attained  in  ordinary  work,  while  rough- 
ing cuts  have  been  made  at  the  rate  of  140  feet  per  minute  on 
cast  iron  with  l/%  inch  feed  and  %  inch  deep. 

Though  the  cost  of  high-speed  steel  is  considerably  greater 
than  that  of  common  tool-steels,  the  difference  in  cost  is  more 
than  covered  by  its  labor-saving  qualities  and  reliability.  The 
best  steel  I  know  of  for  high-speed  cutting  costs  about  seven- 
ty-five cents  per  pound,  and — for  machine-cutting  tool  pur- 
poses at  least — is  not  forged  into  solid  tools,  as  in  the  old- 
fashioned  way,  but  the  cutting  portions  are  forged  and  ground, 


HIGH-SPEED    STEEL    FORGING    AND    HARDENING    PRACTISE     311 


FIG.  297. — Shanking  dies  with  high-speed  cutting  tool. 


312  DROP- FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

then  inserted  in  a  tool-holder  and  held  by  a  simple  plunger 
and  locking  stud,  as  illustrated  and  described  farther  on  in 
this  chapter. 

Combination  Tool-Holders  and  Their  Use 

The  high  cost  per  pound  of  the  high-speed  steels  and  the 
large  waste  of  this  valuable  material  by  individual  users  and 
forgers  of  bar  stock,  where  cutting-tools  are  forged  from  the 
bar,  has  brought  about  a  truly  wonderful  demand  for  an  effi- 
cient substitute  for  expensive  forged  tools — a  substitute  which 
shall  possess  all  the  best  qualities  of  the  bar-forged  tools  with- 
out their  waste,  uncertain  heat  treatment  methods,  and  pro- 
hibitive expense.  This  substitute  I  believe — after  careful  per- 
sonal investigation  and  use  of  various  tool-holders — is  secured 
in  the  combination  tool-holder  manufactured  by  the  O.  K. 
Tool  Holder  Company,  of  Shelton,  Conn.,  as  it  is  the  only 
one  I  have  ever  seen  and  used  which  compares  in  efficiency 
and  strength  with  the  best  high-speed  tools  forged  complete 
from  bar  stock. 

Though  experiments  have  been  conducted  by  almost  all 
users  of  high-speed  steel  to  determine  the  best  shop-practise  for 
treating  it,  the  results  of  these  experiments  as  a  whole  seem 
to  have  given  us  a  general  shop  rule  for  treating  a  high-speed 
steel-tool:  "Heat  it  to  a  white  heat  and  quench  it. "  But  this, 
in  my  opinion,  has  its  shortcomings,  because  a  variation  of  50 
degrees  Fahrenheit  cannot  be  determined  by  the  eye,  but  such 
variation  is  very  important,  especially  in  the  tempering  of 
these  steels. 

The  results  of  poorly  treated  tools  are:  A  decrease  in  shop 
production  for  the  manufacturer,  who  allows  it  inside  his  es- 
tablishment; dissatisfaction  and  poor  work  on  the  part  of  the 
machinist  who  uses  it;  an  increase  in  the  bill  to  the  buyer  of 
the  shop's  products,  and  the  entire  result  a  waste  of  energy 
and  capital. 

Therefore,  I  argue,  the  fact  that  perfectly  finished,  uni- 
formly treated,  and  gauranteed  efficient  high-speed  cutting- 
tools  can  be  purchased  direct  from  specialist  makers,  makes 


FIG.  298. — Finishing  cuts  on  heading  die  with  high-speed  cutting  too]. 


314 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


this  waste  of  energy  and  capital  on  the  part  of  users  of  such 
tools  inexcusable. 

Economy  in   Use  of  Tool-Holders 

On  many  operations  of  die-work  a  tool  capable  of  remov- 
ing stock  at  high-speed  with  corresponding  heavy  cuts  is  very 


FIG.  299. — Complete  set  of  high-speed  cutting  tools  and  their 

holders. 


desirable.  Formerly  solid-forged  tools  were  necessary,  but 
modern  practise  demands  the  more  economical  tool-holder. 
A  very  efficient  type  is  shown  in  Figs.  297  and  298.  As  will 
be  seen,  this  holder  is  a  radical  departure  from  the  old  style 


HIGH-SPEED    STEEL    FORGING    AND    HARDENING    PRACTISE     31$ 

holder.  The  holder  itself  is  made  from  a  tough  grade  of  steel 
designed  to  stand  the  shock  anil  strains  of  heavy  cuts.  The 
cutting-points  are  hydraulic  and  drop-forged  from  high-speed 
steel,  and  are  made  exact  duplicates  of  the  solid-forged  tool- 
cutting  ends,  having  a  large  body  of  metal  to  soak  up  the  fric- 
tlonal  heat  generated  by  the  chip. 

Each  tool  is  provided  with  a  round  shank  fitting  the  re- 
ceiving-end of  the  holder  and  is  prevented  from  turning  by 
contact  of  the  plunger  at  the  flat  back  of  the  tool,  which  in 
turn  is  forced  ahead  by  the  tapered  face  of  the  locking-stud. 
This  method  of  locking  gives  practically  solid  backing  to  the 


FIG.  300. — Plan  of  trimming  die  showing  utility  of  high-speed  steel 

cutting  points. 

tool,  there  being  no   possible  chance  of  the  point   slipping 
away  from  the  work. 

One  commendable  feature  of  this  holder  is  the  entire  ab- 
sence of  set  screws,  the  lock,  consisting  as  it  does  of  a  loose 
plunger,  stud,  and  nut,  can  be  instantly  removed  if  occasion 
requires.  Fig.  297  shows  the  method  of  shanking  die-blocks 
with  this  tool.  The  head  of  the  planer  is  first  set  over  to  the 
required  angle  on  the  side  of  the  shank,  and  with  the  cross- 
head  feed  successive  cuts  are  taken  downward  to  the  re- 
quired depth,  thus  leaving  no  angular  corner  to  remove  with 
short  light  cuts.  At  the  right  is  shown  the  tool  used  to 
undercut  the  side  and  base  of  shank.  By  this  method  very 


316  DROP- FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

« 

close  estimates  on  time  may  be  made  by  ascertaining  the 
number  of  pounds  of  stock  to  be  removed,  as  the  number  of 
cuts  may  be  figured  to  a  certainty— half  an  inch  in  width  being 
the  average  cut. 

In  Fig.  298  is  shown  a  tool  used  for  finishing  side  and 
base  cuts  on  a  block  for  a  heading-die,  this  block  being 
entirely  finished  with  a  standard  shaper  set  of  these  tool 
points. 

Fig.  299  shows  a  trimming-die,  and  well  illustrates  the 
utility  of  some  of  these  shapes,  the  No.  27  tool  being  suitable 
for  finishing  the  entire  face,  both  right  and  left.  For  rough- 


FIG.  301. — Set  of  O.  K.  tools  and  holder. 

ing  work  the  Nos.  9,  12,  5,  6,  11R,  11L,  104,  and  10L  are 
suitable.  All  have  been  found  excellent  for  their  particular 
purpose  or  operation.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  there  are  no  side 
projections  to  this  holder,  which  makes  it  especially  good  for 
trimming  die-work.  In  Fig.  301  is  shown  an  assortment  of 
tools  and  holders  made  in  several  sizes.  With  an  assortment  of 
these  standard  shapes  the  machinist,  die-maker,  or  tool-maker 
is  enabled  to  do  his  work  rapidly  and  accurately.  In  visiting 
one  large  die-sinking  establishment  recently,  nearly  100  of 
these  holders  were  seen  in  use  on  various  parts  of  die-work 
and  in  maintaining  tools  for  such  work,  having  made  a  place 
for  themselves  by  their  great  adaptability  to  all  conditions  and 


HIGH-SPEED    STEEL    FORGING   AND    HARDENING    PRACTISE     317 

their  durability.  Four  of  our  leading  machine-tool-builders 
send  sets  of  these  tools  as  part  of  the  regular  equipment  of 
their  new  machines. 

Forging  the  High-Speed  Steel- Cutting  Points 

The  most  distinctive  feature  about  these  cutting-tools  is 
.that,  instead  of  being  forged  complete  from  bar  stock  used  as 
it  comes  from  the  mill,  each  cutting-point  is  forged  to  shape 
between  dies  in  a  hydraulic  press,  the  most  desirable  condi- 
tions being  attained  in  the  finished  product. 

When  we  consider  the  most  essential  conditions  necessary 
to  high-speed  steel-cutting  efficiency,,  we  find  that  the  pro- 
cesses involved  in  the  production  of  these  cutting-tools  are 
such  as  to  insure  the  accomplishment  of  these  most  essential 
conditions. 

The  first  is  rigidity.  In  order  to  obtain  the  best  results 
there  should  be  absolutely  no  spring  in  the  tool  away  from  the 
work.  Too  much  importance  cannot  be  attached  to  this  fea- 
ture, as  it  is  a  principal  that  is  very  important  in  obtaining  the 
maximum  results  at  the  minimum  of  expense  and  labor  from 
machine  tools.  Cutting-tools  of  the  solid  forged  type  were 
heretofore  considered  necessary  to  accomplish  this  rigidity,  as 
all  machine-tool  builders  aim  to  build  their  machine  more 
powerful  than  the  cutting-tools  used  in  it. 

Secondly:  there  must  be  sufficient  body  of  metal  forged 
in  the  cutting-points  to  rapidly  soak  up  the  heat  generated  by 
the  friction  of  the  chip  against  the  cutting-edge.  This  fric- 
tion on  cast-iron  work  fuses  the  metal  to  the  top  of  the  cut- 
ting-point. On  steel,  however,  where  the  chips  have  more  of 
a  sliding  action,  the  top  face  of  the  tool  becomes  worn  away, 
in  some  cases  to  a  depth  of  ^  inch,  as  shown  in  Fig.  303, 
but  this  wear  takes  place  well  back  from  the  cutting-edge. 
This  condition  seems  peculiar,  but  is  explained  by  the  fact 
that  at  the  angle  of  shear,  the  stock  is  crumpled  and  crushed 
and  adheres  to  the  tool,  thus  protecting  the  edge,  and  the 
sliding  action  that  curls  the  chip  starts  at  a  point  back  of 


318 


DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


the  shear,  or  where  the  leverage  is  sufficient  to  start  bending 
the  chip. 

Third:  the  tool  must  have  the  correct  angles  of  clearance 
and  top  rake.  The  top  rake  must  be  such  as  will  separate  the 
chip  from  the  body  of  metal  in  a  manner  to  generate  the  least 
possible  heat  in  proportion  to  the  metal  removed. 

Lastly:  the  tool  must  be  forged,  hardened,  and  tempered  in 
the  best  possible  manner,  a  thing  which  only  long  experience 
and  continuous  specialization  in  perfecting  this  product  can 
accomplish. 

The  forging  process  used  in  making  the  tool-holder  and 
points  described  and  illustrated  here  is  the  result  of  long  and 


FIG.    302. — Hydraulic  forging-die  for  first  operation. 

patient  experimentation,  and  also  wide  experience  in  the  hand- 
ling of  high-speed  steels;  and  the  applications  and  details  of 
this  process  .interested  me  very  much  when  I  visited  the 
O.  K.  plant  late  last  year. 

I  will  digress  here  to  state  that  these  people  have  special- 
ized so  much  in  the  cutting-tool  business  that  they  maintain 
an  experimental  department  for  the  sole  purpose  of  being  in 
a  position  to  know  at  all  times  the  best  grades  of  high  speed 
steel  obtainable.  The  result  is  that  they  are  obtaining  a  grade, 
of  steel  from  Sheffield,  England,  which  their  experiments  lead 
them  to  believe  is  the  best  there  is,  and  which  they  are  recom- 


HIGH-SPEED    STEEL    FORGING    AND    HARDENING    PRACTISE     319 

mending  and  guaranteeing  to  their  customers,  for  use  in  mill- 
ing cutters  and  other  uses  where  high  speed  steel  is  required, 
on  the  results  obtained  by  them  in  their  experimental  depart- 
ment in  fair  and  square  tests  with  other  steels. 

Starting  with  the  commercial  bar  of  high-speed  steel  the 
pieces  are  cut  off  in  a  press,  great  care  being  taken  to  have 
each  piece  of  uniform  weight  instead  of  size.  To  secure  this 
an  accurate  balance  is  placed  on  the  bench  behind  the  operator, 
a  standard  forging  being  in  the  pan  for  a  weight.  The  first 
piece  from  each  new  bar  is  tested;  and  should  the  weight  vary, 
owing  to  a  slight  difference  in  the  size  of  the  bar,  the  stop  in 
the  cutting  press  is  adjusted  until  the  weight  is  absolutely 
correct.  This  not  only  saves  stock,  which  is  quite  an 


FIG.  303. — A  worm-cutter  and   its  chip. 

item  with  high-speed  steel,  but  also  insures  a  uniformity  in 
the  texture  of  the  forging,  as  the  same  pressure  is  exerted  in 
each  case. 

After  the  cutting-off,  which  is  done  hot,  the  pieces  go  to 
the  forging  furnace.  The  square  piece  of  steel  is  then  heated 
— in  a  special  furnace  of  their  own  manufacture — to  the  proper 
forging-heat  and  dropped  into  a  hardened  steel  retaining-die, 
upon  a  hardened  steel  punch  that  fits  the  profile  of  the  die, 
both  of  which  are  shown  in  Fig.  302. 

The  top  punch  is  then  entered  into  the  die,  and  under  a 
50-ton  pressure  the  square  billet  is  blanked,  squeezed,  and 
forged  to  the  shape  of  the  pieces  shown  on  the  left-hand  side 
of  the  die  in  Fig.  302.  The  top  punch  is  then  withdrawn 


320 


DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 


and  the  blank  raised  by  the  bottom  punch  to  a  proper  position 
on  the  top  of  the  retaining-die,  where  it  may  be  grabbed  by 
the  tongs  and  removed  to  the  furnace  to  be  reheated. 

The  forged  blank  is  next  passed  to  another  press  and 
dropped  edgewise  into  another  retaining-die  having  the  profile 
of  the  finished  forging,  and  the  operation  of  reforging  is  per- 
formed under  75-ton  pressure.  Fig.  304  shows  the  second 
retaining-die  in  its  cast-iron  plate  with  the  blank  and  finished 
forging  lying  on  it.  At  the  left  is  the  top  punch  and  holder, 


FIG.  304. — Hydraulic  forging-dies  for  last  operation. 

the  same  type  of  holder  being  used  on  both  blanking  and  fin- 
ishing operations. 

This  method  of  forging  cannot  help  but  improve  the  grain 
of  the  steel.  In  all  cutting-points  the  steel  is  used  with  the 
cutting-edge  on  the  end  of  the  grain.  While  this  seems  a 
small  matter,  it  has  been  made  the  subject  of  careful  study  and 
has  proved  an  advantage  of  great  importance. 

Another  commendable  feature  of  this  forging-system  is  the 
high  pressure  exerted  on  the  metal  when  forming  the  tool  from 
the  square  to  the  finished  shape  in  two  blows,  while  the  metal 
is  confined  within  the  walls  of  the  retaining-dies.  This  com- 
presses the  grain  of  the  steel  and  is  admitted,  by  manufactu- 
rers of  high-speed  steel  and  the  most  advanced  steel  experts, 
to  be  an  ideal  method  of  forging  cutting-points  for  steel  and 
iron. 


HIGH-SPEED    STEEL    FORGING    AND    HARDENING    PRACTISE     321 

The  Drop-Press  in  Flat-Ware  Operations 

The  drop-press  is  a  very  important  factor  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  German  silver  flat-ware.  Many  kinds  are  used  by  the 
various  manufacturers  of  tableware.  Some  are  still  using  the 
old  style  hand  and  foot  drops,  but  they  are  fast  being  discarded 
for  the  improved  lifters. 

In  using  the  hand  or  foot  drop,  it  is  necessary  for  the  op- 
erator to  pull  the  drop  with  a  belt  over  a  running-pulley,  help- 
ing to  lift  the  hammer  for  the  blow  required.  But  it  is  hard 
on  the  operator,  as  usually  the  work  is  placed  under  the 
hammer  in  the  die  with  one  hand  while  using  the  other  to 
pull  the  hammer.  Another  bad  feature  of  the  hand-drop  is  the 
non-uniformity  of  blows  on  the  work,  as  it  requires  a  very  ex- 
perienced workman  to  lift  the  hammer  exactly  the  same  height 
and  let  it  fall  with  the  same  speed  on  every  piece  of  work  put 
under  the  hammer.  The  economy  of  such  drop-hammers  can 
be  considered  only  when  small  lots  of  each  pattern  are  made, 
or  when  sometimes  successive  and  varied  blows  are  required. 

Experience  with  several  styles  of  drop-presses  for  work  of 
the  nature  mentioned  above  has  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
best  and  most  economical  drop-press  in  use  is  an  automatic 
drop-lifter.  This  conclusion  has  been  reached  by  a  thorough 
study  and  a  varied  experience  in  the  past.  One  company  is 
now  running  an  automatic  drop-lifter  which  has  been  in  use 
eighteen  years,  and  in  all  that  time  costing  only  three  dollars 
for  repairs.  The  hammer  on  this  lifter  weighs  1,000  pounds; 
altogether  this  whole  machine  to-day  is  nearly  as  good  as  new. 

Three  important  features  are  necessary  in  drop-lifters.  First, 
economy  in  repairs,  etc. ;  second,  the  speed  at  which  work  can 
be  produced,  and  third,  the  quality  of  the  work.  The  drop- 
press  which  meets  all  these  requirements  is  the  only  one  to 
have. 

Foundations  for  Flat-Ware  Drop-Presses 

The  successful  operation  of  any  drop-press  is,  to  a  large  ex- 
tent, due  to  the  manner  in  which  the  foundation  is  put  under 


322  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

the  base.  Many  methods  have  been  tried  with  varied  success. 
The  old  method  of  placing  a  large  log  of  wood  endwise  under 
the  base  of  the  drop  and  grouting  around  it,  to  hold  it  firmly, 
answers  the  purpose  for  a  short  time,  but  in  most  soils  the 
wood  soon  decays  and  the  log  becomes  useless;  where  this 
method  is  continued  it  becomes  unsatisfactory,  annoying,  and 
expensive.  The  writer  has  tried  several  methods  of  setting 
drop  foundations,  and  has  come  to  the  belief  that  to*  economy, 
stability,  and  good  results,  our  present  method  is  the  best  for 
flat-ware  drops.  Our  method  consists  of  excavating  down  from 
level  about  eight  feet,  and  wide  and  long  enough  to  give  good, 
solid  grout  foundation,  using  small  cobblestones  and  Portland 
cement.  This  we  build  up  in  the  bottom  of  the  excavation 
about  four  feet,  then  we  put  on  about  two  feet  of  crushed 
stone,  mixed  thoroughly  with  Portland  cement.  We  then  pro- 
cure a  large  stone  about  two  feet  thick  and  at  least  six  inches 
larger  than  the  base  of  the  drop  at  all  points.  This  stone 
we  place  on  top  of  the  crushed  stone,  then  fill  all  around  this 
foundation-stone  with  a  crushed-stone  grouting  nearly  to  top 
of  the  foundation.  After  the  cement  work  has  become  har- 
dened, cut  out  the  top  of  this  foundation  about  one-half  inch 
in  depth  and  the  same  shape  as  the  base  of  the  drop,  being 
sure  that  the  cutting-out  is  perfectly  level  and  true.  We 
usually  cut  this  receiving  space  about  one-half  inch  larger  at 
all  points  to  allow  for  leading  around  the  base.  Now  place 
the  iron  base  in  the  cavity,  being  sure  it  is  level  and  true,  and 
proceed  to  lead  the  same.  When  the  hot  lead  is  poured  into 
the  space  around  the  base,  it  makes  all  secure  without  danger 
of  moving  from  position  as  long  as  the  foundation  stands  firm. 
Such  a  foundation,  if  properly  made,  insures  the  best  possible 
resistance  to  the  blows  of  the  hammer  and  gives  best  reeults 
in  bringing  up  either  plain  or  figured  patterns  in  the  dies. 

Holding  Dies  in  Drop-Presses 

Several  methods  for  holding  the  dies  in  drop-presses  are 
used,  and  all  may  have  some  good  features,  but  we  find  this  to 
be  the  most  practical  one  for  spoon  dies.  It  consists  of  what 


HIGH-SPEED    STEEL    FORGING   AND    HARDENING    PRACTISE     323 

we  call  a  die-bed  keyed  into  the  top  of  the  drop-anvil.  This 
die-bed  has  a  cavity  long  enough  and  wide  enough  and  of 
proper  depth  to  receive  the  die.  In  the  center  of  the  depth 
of  the  receiving-space  we  place  six  screws,  two  on  each  side 
of  the  length  of  space,  and  one  each  on  the  back  and  front  of 
the  same.  These  screws  are  of  suitable  diameter  and  length 
to  hold  the  die  firmly  in  place.  With  the  six  screws  above 
mentioned  we  can  adjust  the  die  sidewise  and  endwise  to  align 
properly  with  its  mate,  which  is  held  in  the  hammer  by  means 
of  a  key.  We  find  this  method  of  holding  the  dies  for  the 
striking  up  of  flat-ware  the  surest,  safest,  and  most  practical  of 
any  so  far  devised.  The  dies  used  for  striking  flat-ware  are  of 
varied  shapes.  Flat,  curved,  half-curved,  etc.,  to  best  suit  the 
work  desired. 

Dies  for  Making  Flat-Ware 

The  dies  for  making  flat-ware  are  expensive.  Therefore, 
quite  an  item  to  be  figured  in  the  cost  of  producing  the  goods. 
They  must  be  made  of  the  best  steel  suitable  for  the  purpose 
that  will  stand  the  hard  usage  required  of  them.  Whole  pages 
might  be  written  of  experiments  which  have  been  ma.de  with 
different  steels  manufactured  to  find  a  make  or  brand  entirely 
satisfactory  in  every  way.  If  the  cost  of  the  steel  only  was 
considered  we  might  all  be  satisfied,  but  the  expense  of  cut- 
ting a  pair  of  figured  spoon  or  fork  dies  is  another  proposi- 
tion, and  many  times  greater  than  the  cost  of  the  steel. 

Treatment  and  Use  of  Dies  for  Flat-Ware 

The  treatment  of  steel  in  the  annealing  and  hardening  pro- 
cess has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  wearing  quality  of  the  dies. 
The  writer  has^seen  some  costly  dies  entirely  ruined  through 
neglect  of  simple  principles  in  the  handling,  and  long  ago 
concluded  that  something  more  than  water  and  fire  was  neces- 
sary to  harden  spoon  or  fork  dies  to  get  the  best  service  from 
them.  In  the  striking  up  of  flat-ware  we  have  many  difficul- 
ties to  overcome.  First,  we  must  be  sure  our  dies  are  set 
correctly  in  the  hammer  and  die-bed,  and  they  must  be  exactly 
mitered  one  with  the  other,  or  our  pattern  on  back  and  front  of 


324  DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

the  blank  when  struck  will  not  be  true  to  each  other,  and  be 
thus  made  unfit  for  the  finished  piece  of  work.  Second,  the 
operator  must  keep  the  dies  clean,  as  if  any  foreign  substance 
adheres  to  the  dies  or  blank  it  prevents  the  figures  from  coming 
up  full  and  clear,  and  also  shows  bad  places  in  the  article.  To 
show  how  careful  the  operator  must  be  to  have  his  work  per- 
fect when  struck  up,  as  an  illustration  we  will  take  the  finest 
human  hair  and  place  it  on  some  plain  part  of  the  die  and  then 
place  our  blank  to  be  struck  over  the  hair  and  let  the  hammer 
fall.  We  find  when  we  look  at  our  blank  that  we  have  a  cav- 
ity or  indentation  many  times  larger  than  the  diameter  of  the 
hair,  though  practically  the  same  shape.  The  requirements 
of  a  good  drop-press  operator  are  activity,  good  judgment, 
good  eyesight,  and  positive  watchfulness  and  carefulness  to 
detect  irregularities  in  die  or  blank. 

Correct  and  Reliable  Method  for  Hardening  Drop- Hammer 
Dies  Without  Loss 

Twenty  years  at  hardening  dies,  employment  in  fifteen 
States  at  the  same  trade  should  give  a  mechanic  an  expert 
knowledge  of  his  craft.  This  is  the  experience  of  the  fellow 
mechanic  from  whom  the  methods  and  processes  given  in  these 
last  pages  of  this  book  was  secured  by  the  author.  During 
this  man's  travels  he  was  determined  to  find  a  way  that  dies 
could  be  hardened  with  perfect  safety,  and  he  found  it.  Re- 
ferring to  his  record  of  one  year  and  six  months  work,  I  found 
he  had  hardened  2,186  drop-hammer  dies  without  the  loss  of 
one  die.  These  dies  were  all  subject  to  inspection  by  the  fore- 
man of  the  blacksmiths  and  die-departments  as  well  as  the  man 
who  used  them.  But  not  a  die  returned  to  be  rehardened,  and 
during  this  time  not  a  die  left  the  hardening-shop  that  could 
be  touched  with  a  file.  This  shop  believed  that  its  dies  did 
best  when  drawn  just  to  a  light  straw  color. 

These  dies  ranged  in  size  from  16  to  500  pounds,  and  were 
just  such  dies  as  would  be  seen  in  any  up-to-date  forge-shop. 
They  had  their  breakdown  and  finishing  portions  all  in  the 
same  die,  where  it  was  possible  to  do  so.  So  it  can  be  seen  they 


HIGH-SPEED    STEEL   FORGING   AND    HARDENING    PRACTISE     325 

were  just  as  complicated  and  as  hard  to  handle  as  any  drop- 
forge  die  in  ordinary  use.  While  some  were  plain,  others 
were  very  complicated,  some  of  them  being  26  inches  long 
with  the  entire  face  hard. 

While  our  die-hardener  was  on  the  road  he  was  also  look- 
ing for  a  way  that  he  could  keep  his  die  straight  on  all  sides. 
This  he  finally  accomplished,  but  the  loss  was  so  great  that  he 
had  to  drop  that  system,  giving  up  this  idea  altogether  as  it 
would  be  working  against  the  nature  of  steel. 

His  next  step  was  to  get  the  bulge  on  the  bottom,  that  is, 
to  be  able  to  get  it  there  every  time.  When  he  had  finally 
gotten  this,  he  was  confronted  with  the  proposition  of  getting 
it  on  the  sides.  Thus  it  brought  him  to  the  point  where  he 
could  contract  the  die  perfectly.  After  accomplishing  this,  he 
was  up  against  hardening  dies  in  lots  of  30  to  40  per  day. 
This  called  for  lots  of  swift  work  and  he  could  give  but  little 
time  to  each  die.  So  he  began  to  note  results. 

More  Losses  in  Winter-Time  Than  in  Summer 

It  seems  that  everybody  was  trying  to  get  their  dies  just  so 
hot  when  they  were  dipped,  regardless  as  to  whether  the  water 
was  at  the  freezing-point  or  moderately  warm.  He  compared 
his  record  of  the  summer  with  that  of  the  winter,  and  he  saw 
at  once  that  the  winter  months  carried  nearly  three  times  the 
greater  percentage  of  loss  than  the  summer.  So  he  at  once 
concluded  it  was  either  due  to  the  dark  days  of  winter  or  the 
extremely  cold  water. 

Winter  being  over  he  could  not  test  his  heats  to  find  the 
weak  point,  so  he  concluded  to  place  a  steam-pipe  in  the  sup- 
ply tank,  never  allowing  the  water  to  get  below  80  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  The  results  have  been  that  winter  and  summer 
having  come  and  gone,  he  has  hardened  2,186  dies  without  a 
single  loss.  The  full  details  for  his  hardening  process  for  a 
drop-die  follows: 

To  handle  it  with  absolute  safety,  there  must  be  a  furnace 
that  will  heat  so  evenly  that  a  250-pound  die  and  one  weigh- 
ing 16  pounds,  can  be  heated  side  by  side,  both  coming  to  the 


326  DROP-FORGING,     DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

hardening-heat  at  the  same  time.  As  to  the  proper  hardening- 
heat  I  would  prefer  to  leave  that  to  the  hardener,  but  for  fear 
of  being  told  that  I  did  not  name  the  heat  I  will  say  that  if 
you  have  steel  that  runs  in  carbon  from  60  to  75  points,  heat 
to  a  dull  cherry-red;  but  if  you  have  steel  that  runs  from  75 
to  90  points,  then  heat  to  a  little  more  than  somber  red. 
Allow  the  dies  about  2  ^  hours  to  heat. 

Temperature  of  Cooling  Water 

After  you  have  the  fire  so  you  can  heat  the  dies  as  de- 
scribed, the  next  step  to  get  right  on  is  the  temperature  of  the 
water  to  be  used  in  the  cooling.  There  are  many  ways  of  do- 
ing this  and  much  depends  on  the  amount  of  the  pressure  of 
both  the  water  and  steam  as  to  where  the  steam  should  be  ap- 
plied. Should  the  steam-pressure  exceed  the  water-pressure, 
place  the  steam  ahead  of  the  water-valves  on  the  hardening- 
tank.  This  will  give  complete  control  of  the  temperature  of 
the  water,  and  in  fact  be  better  than  having  it  go  directly  to  the 
supply-tank.  The  next  move  is  to  have  the  water  in  the  cool- 
ing-tank so  that  it  is  absolutely  under  control,  or  so  you  can 
have  your  die  in  ^  inch  or  2  inches  of  water,  just  as  the 
shape  of  the  die  will  call  for.  This  can  be  accomplished  in 
several  different  ways.  The  best  tank  ever  built  was  one 
with  a  4-inch  waste-pipe  directly  in  the  bottom  of  the  tank, 
with  a  valve  below  and  outside  of  the  tank,  under  the  ground 
line,  with  an  extension-handle  or  wheel,  where  it  could  be 
reached  while  handling  the  die,  thus  regulating  the  depth  of 
the  water  for  cooling  by  the  valve  of  the  4-inch  waste-pipe. 
Where  water  would  do  damage  in  case  of  the  tank  overflowing, 
there  should  also  be  an  overflow  waste-pipe,  thus  confining  the 
water  entirely  to  the  tank. 

Have  Plenty  of  Supply-Pipes  for  Water 

Where  three  or  four  400-pound  dies  are  to  be  hardened 
daily,  there  should  be  several  supply-pipes  with  not  less  than 
30  pounds  pressure  from  a  ^-inch  pipe,  entering  the  tank  at  a 
place  on  the  side  or  end  where  it  can  run  to  the  bottom  and 


HIGH-SPEED    STEEL    FORGING   AND    HARDENING    PRACTISE     327 

center  of  the  tank,  then  up  and  directly  under  and  within  6 
inches  of  where  the  face  of  the  die  will  rest  when  hardening. 
In  some  cases  it  will  require  more  than  one  stream  of  water 
on  a  die,  this  of  course  depending  on  the  outline  of  the  face 
of  the  die.  There  are  other  things  to  consider,  even  before 
the  die  is  heated. 

Should  the  die  have  a  hole  for  a  plug  or  pin,  these  holes 
should  be  closed  with  iron  pins  turned  to  fit  the  hole,  allowing 
always  for  shrinkage,  which  should  not  be  less  than  ^  inch 
where  the  hole  is  large,  being  sure  to  have  them  so  they  can- 
not drop  out.  Riveting  is  best  where  possible.  Then  thread 
one  end  of  the  plug,  and  put  a  nut  on  and  tighten  the  same 
as. a  bolt.  I  know  some  will  say,  use  fire-clay  or  putty.  Fire- 
clay is  not  safe;  putty  is  calcium  carbonate,  and  when  the  work 
is  heated  with  putty  in  the  holes  the  calcium  carbonate  becomes 
just  like  any  lime,  ready  to  heat  the  moment  water  strikes  it, 
consequently  it  is  not  safe. 

Hardening  the  Die 

After  it  is  heated  ready  to  harden,  take,  say,  the  16-pound 
die  from  the  fire,  and  place  in  from  one  to  two  inches  of  water 
face  up.  Let  it  stay  until  the  back  gets  moderately  black  or 
cooled  just  enough,  so  that  when  the  die  is  turned  the  back 
can  be  cooled  as  quickly  as  the  face.  Before  turning  it  on  the 
face  over  the  stream  of  water  to  harden,  take  a  piece  of  coarse 
cloth,  wrapped  firmly  on  a  handle,  so  as  to  make  a  swab. 
Have  this  in  water  at  all  times.  Take  the  swab  or  wipe-stick 
from  the  water,  wipe  the  face  and  high  points  of  the  die  so  as 
to  drive  any  excessive  heat  from  them,  being  sure  not  to  use 
it  so  freely  as  to  prevent  hardening.  Then  place  the  die  over 
the  stream  face  down,  cool  the  back  slowly  by  Jetting  the  water 
on  and  off  the  back,  thus  allowing  the  heat  to  be  driven  out 
the  back*  rather  than  the  face  or  sides. 

The  depth  the  face  of  the  die  should  be  in  the  water  de-v 
pends  on  the  outline  of  the  working-face,  but  not  more  than 
%£  inch  on  a  die  that  has  a  moderately  straight  face.     When 
the  die  becomes  black  on  all  sides,  shut  off  the  water  and  re- 


328  DROP-FORGING,    DIE-SINKING,    ETC. 

move  to  a  place  in  the  tank  where  it  can  be  placed  in  the  water 
face  down  and  just  sufficient  water  to  cover  the  impressions, 
providing  they  are  one  inch  deep.  The  die  should  sit  in  at 
least  one  inch  of  water,  regardless  of  the  shallowness  of  its 
impression,  after  being  taken  from  the  stream,  but  do  not 
continue  the  stream  after  the  die  is  black.  Leave  it  in  the  still 
water  until  thoroughly  cool,  then  draw  the  temper. 

Drawing  the  Temper 

There  are  many  ways  of  tempering  them,  but  this  should 
be  done  in  a  furnace  constructed  for  that  purpose,  never  placing 
the  dies  to  be  drawn  in  a  fire  with  more  than  215  degrees  Cen- 
tigrade (420  Fahrenheit),  allowing  them  to  take  the  temper 
slowly.  Then  let  cool.  In  the  hardening  of  the  2  5 0-pound  die, 
take  it  from  the  fire,  keeping  the  face  up,  and  place  in  the  water 
within  three  or  four  inches  of  the  face.  Leave  there  until  the 
back  or  shank  gets  moderately  black.  Take  from  the  water, 
wipe  the  high  places  with  the  wet  swab  and  turn  the  die  over 
the  stream  of  water  to  harden,  being  sure  the  temperature  of 
the  water  is  not  below  80  degrees  Fahrenheit.  If  there  is  more 
than  one  impression  use  more  than  one  stream  of  water,  so 
that  the  water  will  strike  all  parts  of  the  die  that  are  to  be 
hardened.  The  die  should  not  sit  in  more  than  ^  inch  of 
water  when  hardening,  unless  the  impressions  go  deeper  than 
this.  Even  if  they  do  and  are  on  the  inside  and  center  of  the 
face,  the  force  of  the  water  will  be  sufficient  to  harden  that  part. 
The  idea  is  not  to  have  the  die  in  deep  water  while  hardening, 
and  by  cooling  the  back  slowly  while  hardening  the  face,  the 
die  can  be  held  straight  and  hardened  without  any  danger  of 
losing  it. 

After  the  die  has  become  black  on  the  sides  and  ends,  then 
stop  cooling  the  back,  turn  off  a  part  of  the  water  and  let  the 
die  sit  over  the  gently  flowing  stream  until  cool.  This  rule 
applies  to  all  dies  of  100  pounds  or  over,  while  the  smaller 
dies  can  be  placed  to  one  side,  away  from  the  stream  in  one  inch 
of  water  to  finish  cooling.  Be  careful  not  to  take  the  dies  of 
any  size  out  of  the  water  before  they  are  thoroughly  cool.  A 


HIGH-SPEED    STEEL    FORGING    AND    HARDENING    PRACTISE     329 

die  weighing  250  pounds  should  not  be  cooled  in  less  than 
1  X  hours. 

Cool  the   Die  Thoroughly 

In  examining  the  die  for  heat,  the  back  or  shank  of  the  die 
should  be  entirely  dry.  Place  the  palm  of  the  hand,  or  better 
still  the  arm,  on  the  die,  to  feel  for  the  heat,  and  as  long  as 
there  is  any  heat  that  can  be  felt  with  the  arm,  do  not  remove 
the  die;  let  it  stay  in  the  water  until  the  heat  is  entirely  out.  This 
is  the  most  dangerous  point,  and  if  well  guarded  it  can  be  passed 
without  the  loss  of  one;  even  should  there  be  a  flaw  in  the 
die,  it  will  stand  the  hardening. 

The  tempering  of  the  die  is  also  of  great  importance.  The 
tempering  fire  should  not  be  more  than  215  degrees  Centi- 
grade, as  before  stated.  When  the  die  is  in  place  to  be  drawn, 
and  where  there  is  no  way  of  telling  just  what  the  heat  is,  the 
safe  way  is  to  cover  the  face  of  the  die  with  a  cold  piece  of 
iron.  This  will  prevent  the  heat  striking  the  corners  until 
the  body  begins  to  warm.  After  the  water  is  driven  entirely 
from  the  face  by  the  heat  under  the  iron  on  the  face  of  the  die, 
then  the  iron  can  be  removed  and  the  die  allowed  to  come  to 
the  desired  temper.  After  this  the  die  should  be  allowed  to 
cool  in  the  open  air. 


INDEX 


Accuracy  of  outline,  testing  with 
lead  proofs,  19 

Accurate  forgings,   135 

Advantages  of  oil  fuel,   146 

Air-brake,  Westinghouse,  287 

Air-power  hammer,  209 

Ajax  forging-machine,  drop-forg- 
ing, 265 

Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute,   186 

Alloying  materials,  effects  of,   136 

Aluminum  in  steel,   137 

Ambler  drop-hammer  description, 
176 

Ambler    drop-hammer,    front   view 

of,   173 
side  view  of,  173 

Ambler,  Mr.  A.  A.,   176 

American  machinery,  introduction 
of,  163 

American  Machinist,  article  on  iron 
strains,  187 

American  tool -steel,  samples  worked 
upon,  189 

Annealing  furnaces,  Brown  & 
Sharpe  heating  and,  26 

Anvil  block,  improved,  200 

Appliances,  hardening,  83 

Armstrong  boring-tool  dies,  40 

Art,  growth  of  drop-forging  and 
stamping,  50 

Assembling  flanges  and  spokes  with 
hubs,  216 

Assembling  wheelbarrow  wheel,  204 

Author,  visiting  O.  K.  Tool  Holder 
Plant,  318 

Autogenous  welding,   136 
applications  of,  299 
conclusions  on,  302 

Automobile  shop  drop-forging  prac- 
tise, 11 

Axle  in  three  stages,  forged,   120 

Badge,  embossed,  65 

Baldwin  Locomotive  Works,  first 
steam  hammer  in,  184 

Ball-vise,  special,  used  in  die-sink- 
ing, 15 

Barnum  &  Richardson  car-wheel 
iron,  78 


Bates  Forge  Company,  124 

Bell-crank,  die  for  forming  the  end 
of,  51 

Belt  punch,   126 

Bement,  Miles  &  Co.  steam-ham- 
mers, 184 

Bending-die  for  steering-gear  part, 
23 

Bending-dies  for  connecting-rod 
straps,  279 

Bending  eye-bolts  in  bulldozer,  284, 
285 

Bending-form  in  front,  drop-forging 
die  showing,  22 

Bending-machine,  working  in  drop 
and,  198 

Bethlehem  Steel  Company,  248 

Billings  &  Spencer  Company,  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  181 

Black  and  M.  F.  Kahm,  Messrs.  J. 
S.,  187 

Blacksmith,  first  "interchange- 
able," 166 

Blanchard,  Thomas,  in  1727,  247 

Blanks,  trimming  wrench,    124 

Blast-forge  refitted  for  oil-fuel,   145 

Block,  improved  anvil,  200,  201 

Board  fastening  of  hammer,   169 

Board  in  hammer,  method  of  fast- 
ening, 168 

Board,  steam,  helve,  trip,  and  drop 
hammers,  140 

Bolster  for  postal  and  baggage  cars, 
264 

Bolt-heading  dies,   100 

Bossed  levers,  dies  for  finishing,  46 

Bradley  hammer,  284 

Bradly  cushion  hammers,  179 

Brazing  furnaces,   161 

Breaking-down  die,  example  of,  21 

Breaking-down  and  finishing-dies, 
122 

Breaking-down  dies,  edging  and 
flattening,  22 

Breaking-out,  using   the   chisel,   73 

Breaking- through  chisels,   70 

Bridgeport,  Conn.,  Geo.  F.  Champ - 
ney,  75 

Bridgeport  Patent  Die  Company,  79 


331 


332 


INDEX 


Brine  tank,   143 
special,   144 

Brown     &    Sharpe    case-hardening 
furnace  for  fuel  oil,   148,   149 
Brown  &  Sharpe  furnaces,  26 
Brown  &  Sharpe  heating  and  an- 
nealing furnaces,  26 
Bucket,  design  of  elevator,  260 
Bucket  dies,  molding  elevator,  261 
Buckets,     making     elevator     with 

steam-hammer,  257 
Built-up  die,  304 

Built-up  or  welded-up  die  work,  302 
Bullard,  E.  P.,  of  Bridgeport,  76 
Bulldozer  appurtenances,  241,  242 
Bulldozer,     bending    eye-bolts    in, 

284,  285 
work  of   the   forming-machine 

and,  266,  267 
Burdict    hot-pressed     nut-machine, 

254 
Burners,  for  oil  fuel,   160 


Cars,  bolster  for  postal  and  baggage, 

264 
Casting,    and    dropping    drop-dies, 

modeling,  77 
Cast-iron  die-holder,  28 
Cast-iron  dies,  wooden  patterns  for 

pair  of  heavy,  40 
Cavities,  typing  tools  used  to  form, 

18    " 
Chain,    details   of    new   short    stiff 

link,  229 

dies  for  forming,  230 
former  method  of  making,  235 
methods      of      manufacturing 

welded,  234 
present     method     of     making 

welded,  236 

Chain-making,  die  for,  240 
process  of  welding  in,  240 
screw-press  for,  231 
the  link-cutter,  238 
the  link-winder  in,  236,  237 
welding  hammer  in,  239 
welding  machine  in,  238 
Chains,  dies  for  welding,  230 
early  history  of,  227 
new  method  of  making  weld- 
less,  228 

Champney  die-sinking  process,  74 
Champney,  George  F.,  75 
Champney  in  Europe,  76 
Champney   process,    final    develop- 
ment of,  85 
Champney  shop,  die-sinkers  in,  80 

specimen  of  work  done  in,  81 
Charcoal  iron,  samples  of  good,   191 


Checkering  and  grooving  vise  jaws, 
tools  for,  132 

Chisel,    using  the  breaking-out,  73 

Chisels,  breaking  through,  70 

Chromium  in  steel,   136 

Clipper  steel,  121 
die  of,  121 

Closed  and  open   dies  for  forgings, 
88 

Coal -forges  and   furnaces   for   fuel 
oil,  refitted,   148 

Colt,  Colonel  Samuel,   164 

Combination  dies,  94 

Combination  tool-holders  and  their 
use,  312 

Compound    lever   device   for    head 
lifting,   165 

Conclusions  on  welding,  302 

Connecticut,  The  O.  K.  Tool  Holder 
Company,  Shelton,  312 

Connecting-rod  straps,  bending  dies 
for,  279 

Connecting-rods,  forging   dies   for, 

277 

machining  inside  surface  of,  281 
planing  ends  of,  280 

Construction  details  of   drop-ham- 
mer,  176,   177 

Construction,     jointed     swinghead, 

165 
of  drop-hammer,  167 

Cost  of  forgings,  282 

Counterbalanced  treadle,   164 

Crane  hook,  die  for,  54 

Crank,  die  for  forging,  59 

Crowbar  for  locomotive  boilers,  265 

Cutters  for  nicking  stock,  59 

Cutting  the  impression  in  die-sink- 
ing, 67 

Cylinder,  welding  top  of,  301 

Davy  Brothers,  Sheffield,  England, 

249 

Deep-forming  die,  machining  a,  43 
Department,    layout   of   hardening, 

142 

location  of  die-sinking,  140 
Development  of  the  drop-hammer, 

163 

Die  assembled,  die-holder  and,  28 
Die-block,  planing  a,   12 
Die-blocks  and    impression-blocks, 

96 
Die,  built  up,  304 

cool   the,    thoroughly,  329 
drawing  the  temper  in  drop,  328 
driving  model  into  the,  79 
example  of   breaking-down,  21 
finishing  on  profiling  machine, 
14 


INDEX 


333 


Die,  finished  with  high-speed  cutting 

tool,  313 

for  chain-making,  240 
for  forging-crank,  59 
for  forming  end  of  bell-crank, 

51 
for  forging  hole  through  a  boss, 

construction  of,   57 
for  second  operation  on  ratchet 

drill  handle,  36 
for  turning  eye -bolts,  283 
Die-hardening,  piping  for  drop,   306 
supply  pipes  for  drop,  326 
temperature  of  water  in  drop, 

326 

Die,  hardening  the  drop,  327 
Die-holder  and  die  assembled,  23 
Die-holder,  cast-iron,  28 
Die,  holes  punched  by  punches  in- 
tegral with,  56 

machining  a  deep  forming,  43 
Die-making,  method  of,  45 
Die,  method  of   making  drop-forg- 
ing, 29 
Die-practise    for   accurate    forginr, 

27 

Die,  setting  the,   135 
Die-sinkers  in  the  Charhpney  shop, 

80 
Die-sinking,    a   few    milling    tools 

used  in,   17 

cutting  the  impression  in,  67 
fly-cutters  used  in,  17 
profiling  machine  used  in,  13 
typing  tools  used  in,   18 
Die-sinking  and  embossing  practise, 

62 

Die-sinking    and     shop -practise    in 

cutting  tool -holder  forging,  37 

Die-sinking     department,     location 

of,  140 

Die-sinking  for  butt-plate  of  mili- 
tary rifle,  30 
Die-sinking  history,  7 
Die-sinking  machines,  86 
Die-sinking  methods,  processes,  and 

machines,  62 
process  of,  9 
Die-sinking  process,  the  Champney, 

74 

Die,  steel  blank  for,  28 
Die-steel,  high  class  not  used,  42 
made  by  Farist  in   Bridgeport, 

Conn.,  81 

Die  to  resist  wear,  making,  97 
Die-work,    built-up   or    welded-up, 

302 

Dies  and  header  for  forging  swing- 
hanger,  268 
Dies  and  the  drop,  the,  196 


Dies,  bolt-heading,   100 

breaking-down     and    finishing, 
122 

combination,  94 

drop- forging,  94 

drop-forgings    as     they    appear 
from,  38 

economy  of  drop-forging   dies, 
197 

exactness  of  size  of,  84 

examples  of  drop-forging,  21 

facilities    for    reproduction    of 
drop,   194 

finishing  the  hammer  dies,  106 

first  principles  in  holding,  99 

for  Armstrong  boring-tools,  40 

for  connecting-rod  straps,  bend- 
ing, 279 

for  crane  hook,  54 

for  finishing  bossed  levers,  46 

for  finishing  eye-bolt,  50 

for   first   operation   on   ratchet 
drill  handle,  36 

for  forging  an  eye-bolt,  50 

for  forming  chain,  230 

for    lever   with   hubs   on    both 
ends,  49 

for  making  flat-ware,  323 

for  pin-ends,  forging,   112 
or    trimming   hand-vise    forg- 
ings,  punches  and,   131 

for  welding  chains,  230 

forge  where  heated,  78 

forging  machine,  269 

forging-press  for  making  ham- 
mers,  104 

hardening  drop-dies,  losses  in, 
325 

hardening  drop-forging,  26 

heating  and  hardening  of,  82 

in  drop -presses,  holding,  322 

keying  wide-seat,  98 

making  and  working  out,  60 

materials  used  for,  50 

method  of  applying  pressure  or 
impact  in,  56 

method  of  fastening   hammer, 
179 

methods  used  for  making,  59 

molding  eleyator  bucket,  261 

needed  for   forging-press,  few, 
108 

pony,  39 

provided  with  space  for  receiv- 
ing fin,  50,  51 

punching  small   holes  through 
work  in,  56 

sectional,  46 

sectional  drop-forge,  48 

spoiling,   195 


334 


INDEX 


Dies,   staking  tools  used  for  repair- 
ing, 20 
tack-making,  and  their  action, 

245 

tack  and  tack,  244 
tongs  for  holding,  60 
tools  employed  in  making  drop, 

16 

trimming,  24 

use  of,  in  drop-hammer,  94 
use  of,  in  drop-press,  94 
use  of,  in  forging-machine,  94 
without   loss,    hardening   drop, 

324 

working  stock  in  drop,   193 
Drill  handle,  drop-forging  a  ratchet, 

34 

expanding  the  shell  of,  36 
Drilling  out  the  stock,  72 
Driving  model«into  the  die,   79 
Drop  and  bending-machine,  working 

in,   198 

Drop  and  hydraulic  forged  cutting- 
tools,  309 

Drop,  the  dies  and  the,  196 
Drop-die,  drawing  the  temper,  328 
hardening,    cool    the    die  thor- 
oughly, 329 

hardening,  losses  in,  325 
hardening  the,  327 
piping  for,  306 
supply  pipes  for,  326 
temperature  of   cooling  water, 

326 
Drop-dies,  combination,  94 

facilities  for  reproducing,   194 
hardening  of  various  steels,  304 
working  stock  in,   193 
Drop-forge   and    hardening    plant, 

139 

plan  of  modern,   141 

under  one  roof,  139 

Drop-forge  die,  making  a,   13 

method  of  sinking  a,  29 
Drop-forge  dies  for  ship-fittings,  43 
Drop -forge  work,   11 
Drop-forged,  lead-proofs  of  various 

parts  to  be,  39 
Drop-forged    shell   and   handle  for 

ratchet  drill,  34 
Drop-forged  ship-fittings,  42 
Drop-forging,  example  of  breaking- 
down  die  in,  21 

analogous,  hot  stamping  and,  53 
and  stamping  art,  growth  of,  50 
and  stamping  large  parts,  prin- 
ciples of,  51 

a  ratchet  drill  handle,  34 
die  and  bending  die  for  steer- 
ing gear  part,  23 


Drop- forging,    die    for  wrench  and 
trimming-die  for  same,  24 

die,  hardening  the  face  of,  27 

die,  showing   bending    form   in 
front,  22 

die,  with  edging  and  breaking- 
down  dies,  22 

die  work,  8 

for  the   Ajax  forging-machine, 
265 

on  the  Pacific  Coast,  41 

or  squeezing,  134 

practise,  automobile  shop,   11 

removal  of  fin  produced  in,  54 

unusual  job  of,   120 
Drop -forging  dies,  21,  94 

examples  of,  25 

for  gun  work,  118 

hardening,  26 

materials  for,  and  life  of,   11 

samples  of  lead  proofs,   19 

special  ball-vise  used   in   sink- 
ing,  15 

Drop -forging  dies  and  work,   12 
Drop-forgings,  as  they  appear  from 
dies,  38 

cost  of,  136 

making  of,  7 

Drop-hammer,  at  International  Har- 
vester Company,   178 

construction,   167 

details  of  construction,  175 

development  of,   163 

effects,  174 

effects,  Miner  &  Peck  Mfg.  Co., 
174 

first  United  States  patent  of,  1C4 

forgings,  134 

for  heavy  work,  180 

for  sinking-dies,  79 

foundations,  170 

foundations,    Portland    cement 
for,  170 

Golding  &  Cheney  patent  of,  164 

improved  and  up-to-date,  181 

Pratt  &  Whitney  Co.,   170 

sectional  view  of,  167 

use  of  dies  in,  94 

Drop  hammers,  board,  steam,  helve, 
trip,  and,  140 

of  Billings  &  Spencer  Company, 
181 

oil -heating  furnaces  and,  25 
Drop-press,  for  flat-ware  operations, 
321 

use  of  dies  in,  94 
Drop -presses  holding  dies  in,  322 
Drop-rod,   174 
Drop -work,  flash  in,  35 

location  of  fin  in,  54 


INDEX 


335 


Dropping  drop-dies,  modeling,  cast- 
ing and,  77 

Drops  on  stock,  effect  of,   198 
Ductility  lost  at  600  degrees  F.,  138 
Dusseldorf  Exposition,  ten  thousand- 
ton  hydraulic  press  at,  291 

Eberhardt,  Messrs.  Ulrich  and  Fred. 

L.,  214 

Economy  in    use,  tool -welding,  314 
Edging  and  flattening  breaking-down 

dies,  22 

Effects  of  alloying  materials,   136 
Electric  welding,   136 
Elevator  bucket,  design  of,  260 
Elevator  buckets  with  steam-ham- 
mer, making,  257 
Embossed  badge,  65 
Embossed  number  plate,  66 
Embossed  ornament  in  sheet-metal, 

67 

Embossed  police-shield,  65 
Embossed  stamping,   68 
Embossed  work,  making  forces  for, 

62 

End-heating  forge  furnace,   155 
Enfield    rifle    for    English    Govern- 
ment,  163 

Engine  connecting-rod  forging,  276 
England  in  1634,  chain  patents  in, 

228 
English   Government,    Enfield    rifle 

for,   163 

Essegy,  Stefan  Kiss  v.,  229 
Evolution  of  the  process,  history  of 

Champney,  75 

Exactness  of  size  of  dies,  84 
Examples  of  drop -forging  dies,  21 
Examples  of  hydraulic  forging  pro- 
duction, 296 
Expanding  the  shell  of  drill -handle, 

36 
Experiments,  materials  used  in  steel 

and  iron,   186 

practical  results  of  twisting,  197 
Eye-bolt,  dies  for  finishing,   50 

dies  for  forging,   50 
Eye-bolts,  die  for  turning,  283 

Farist  in  Bridgeport,  die-steel  made 

by,  81 

Files,    rifflers,    etc.,   used    by    die- 
sinkers,   16 
Fin,   dies  provided  with   space   for 

receiving,  50,  51 
location  of,  in  drop -work,   54 
removal  of,  in  drop -forging,  54 
stripping  die  for  removing,   52 
Final     development    of    Champney 
process,  85 


Flange  forming  tools,  214 
Flanges,  heating,  212 
making  the,  209 
punching  eight  rivet  holes  inr 

215 

wheels  ready  for  spokes  and,  211 
Flanging  holes  in  work,  55 
Flash  in  drop  work,  35 
Flat-ware,  dies  for  making,  323 
drop-press,  foundations  for,  321 
operations,  drop -press  for,  321 
treatment  and  use  of  dies  in,  323 
Flat-work,  steel  forces  for,  64- 
Fly-cutters  used  in  die-sinking,   17 
Foos   Manufacturing    Co.,    Spring- 
field, Ohio,   176 
Force  holder,  69 
Force -making,  process  of,   10 
Forces,  different  shaped,  63 

for  embossed  work,  making,  62 
.  properly  made,  62 
steel  for  flat-work,  64 
Forge,    for    center-heating,    double 

opening,  152,   153 
for  end  heating,  single  opening, 

151 
furnace,  adjustable  top-slot  oil, 

154 

furnace,  end  heating,  155 
furnace,  tool-dressing,   157 
furnaces,     single     and     double 

opening,   156 

shop,  slab-truck  for,  127,   128 
where  dies  were  heated,  78 
Forged  axle  in  three  stages,   120 
Forges  and  heaters,  oil  burning,   154 
Forges,  installation  of,   158 

top  slot  and  end-heating,   157 
Forging,  drop-hammer,   134 
engine  connecting-rod,  276 
fin  into  the  bar  by  rotating,  53 
high-grade  steels,   136 
hydraulic,  293 

in  dies  from  the  bar  stock,  51 
in  the  heavy  swaging-machine, 

262 

large  pieces,   133 
machine,  275 
shapes  produced  'by   hydraulic, 

297 

straight  peen  hammers,  286 
swing-hanger,  dies  for,  268 
the  high-speed  steel  cutting 

points,  317 

under  steam-hammer,  133 
unusual  job  of  drop,   120 
with  dies  in  a  railroad  shop,  284 
without  special  tools,  291 
with  special  tools  and  unskilled 
labor,  287 


336 


INDEX 


Forging  a  fork -lever,  55 

Forging  a  fulcrum   bracket,  set  of 

tools  for,   110 

Forging  and  flanging  man -hole  seat- 
ings,  die  for,  58 
Forging  die,  for  steering-gear  part, 

23 
forming  center  holes  in  bosses, 

49 

hob  for,  92 

practise  for  accurate,  26 
Forging   dies,  for   connecting-rods, 

277 

for  pin  ends,   112 
for  round  and  square  upsetting, 

116 

vanadium,  36 
Forging-machine,   drop-forging  for, 

265 

large  hydraulic,  256 
multi -cylinder  hydraulic,  253 
Forging-machine  dies,  269 
Forging-machines,    use  of  dies   in, 

94 
Forging  practise,  294,  295 

examples  of  hydraulic,  296 
Forging-press,  rapid-action,  247 

few  dies  needed  for,  108 
Forging  round  work  to  destroy  fin, 

53 
Forging-shop,     time-card    for    the, 

288,  289 

Forgings,  accurate,   135 
accuracy  of,  8 
and  their  making,  micrometri- 

cal,  32 

closed  and  open  dies  for,  88 
cost  of,  282 

inferior  quality  of,   137 
locomotive,  made   in  hydraulic 

machine,  258,  259 
micrometrical,  31 
planing  tools  for,   129 
proper  practise  for   hydraulic, 

298 

wrought-iron  for  small,  54 
Forming-machine     and     bulldozer, 

work  of,  266,  267 
Foundations,      drop-hammer,      170, 

171,   172 

for  flat-ware  drop-presses,  321 
ratio   of    base    compared    with 

weight  of  hammer,   169 
Fuel,  advantages  of  oil,   146 
Fuel  for  preheating,  301 

used  in  tests  on  steel,   190 
Fuel -oil  refitted  forges  and  furnaces 

for,  148 

Fulcrum   bracket,  set  of  tools  for 
forging,   110 


Furnace,  end-heating  forge,   155 
refitted  lead-pot  for  oil  fuel,   146 
tool -dressing  forge,   157 
tube -brazing,   159 
wire-brazing,   158 

Furnaces,  brazing,   161 

for  fuel -oil,  refitted  forges  and, 

148 
heating,  26 

Gas-fired  ladle  heater,   160,   161 

Gas-heating  flanges  in  muffle,  using 
natural,  212 

Gears,  pressed  steel,  214 

Golding  &  Cheney  patent  of  drop- 
hammer,   164 

Grooving  vise  jaws,  tools  for  check- 
ering and,   132 

Gun-work  drop-forging  dies,   118 
* 

Hammer,  air  power,  209 
board  fastening,   169 
Bradley,  284 
emergency  steam,  270 
for  heavy  work,  drop,   180 
making  a  double-faced,  106 
method  of  fastening  board  in, 

168 
weight  of  base  compared  with 

foundations,   169 
Hammer-blows,  die-work  done  with, 

56 

Hammer-dies,   179 
finishing  the,  106 
method  of  fastening,  179 
Hammer-heads,  method  of  securing, 

178 
Hammers,  board,  steam,  helve,  trip, 

and  drop,   140 
Bradley  cushion,  179 
forging-press  dies  for  making, 

104 

forging  straight  peen,  286 
steam,  and  capacity,   182 
Hand-vise    forgings,    punches,    and 

dies  for  trimming,   131 
with  shavings,  130 
work  on,   130 
Hand-vise  handle  before  and  after 

closing,   129 
Hanger,  passenger-car  truck-swing, 

263 

Hardening  appliances,  83 
Hardening,  cool  the  die  thoroughly 

in,  329 

heating  of  dies  and,  82 
piping  for  drop-die,  306 
Hardening  department,    layout   of, 
142 


INDEX 


337 


Hardening     drop-dies,    of     various 

steels,  general  practise,  304 
losses  in,  325 
without  loss,  324 
Hardening  drop-forging  dies,  26 
Hardening-plant,    drop -forge     and, 

139 
plan  of  modern  drop-forge  and, 

141 
under  one  roof,  drop -forge  and, 

139 

Hardening  the  drop-die,  327 
Hardening  the  face  of  drop-forging 

die,  27 
Heads,  method  of  securing  hammer, 

178 
Heaters,  162 

oil-burning  forges  and,  154 
Heating    and    annealing    furnaces, 

Brown  &  Sharpe,  26 
Heating    and    hardening    of    dies, 

82 

Heating,  flanges,  212 
furnaces,  26 

metal  before  welding,  300 
too  suddenly,  138 
Helve,  board,  steam,  trip,  and  drop 

hammers,   140 

High-class  die-steel  not  used,  42 
High-grade  steels,  forging,  136 
High-speed  cutter  and  chip,  319 
High-speed  cutting  points,  forging 

the,  317 
High-speed   cutting   tool,    shanking 

die  with,  311 

High-speed  cutting  tools  and  hold- 
ers, 314 

High-speed  steel,  309 
and  tool -holders,  310 
hydraulic  forging  cutter,  320 
History  and  evolution  of  the  process, 

75 
History,  of  chains,  early,  227 

of  die-sinking,  7 
Hob  for  forging  dies,  92 
Holder,  force,  69 
Holes  punched  by  punches  integral 

with  die,  56 

Horse-power,  steam-hammers,  184 
Hot-pressed  nut-machine,  254 
Hot-stamping  an'd  drop-forging  anal- 
ogous, 53 
Howard  Iron  Works,  Buffalo,  N.  Y., 

254 

Hubbing,  typing  or,  process,  60 
Hubs  and  flanges,  wheels  ready  for, 

211 
Hydraulic  forged  cutting-tools,  drop 

and,  309 
Hydraulic  forging,  293 


Hydraulic  forging-die,  for  first  oper- 
ation, 318 
for  high-speed,  320 
Hydraulic  forging-dies,  61 
Hydraulic    forging-machine,    large, 

256 

multi -cylinder,  253 
Hydraulic   forging-press,  rapid   ac- 
tion, 247 

Hydraulic   forging  production,    ex- 
amples of,  296 
Hydraulic  forging,  proper  practise 

for,  298 

shapes  produced  by,  297 
Hydraulic  forging-punches,  shaping 

of,  298 
Hydraulic      machine,      locomotive 

forging,  made  in,  258,  259 
Hydraulic  press,  description  of,  294 
gives  best  results,  137 
pressure  for  small  work  in,  252 
ten  thousand-ton,  290 
tremendous  pressure  of,  248 

Impression-blocks,    die-blocks   and, 

96 
Indianapolis,    Bates  Forge  Co.,   of, 

124 

Installation  of  forges,   158 
Interchangeable      blacksmith,      the 

first,   166 

International   Harvester  Co.,    ham- 
mers at,   178 
Internationale   Handelsgesellschaft, 

Kleineberg&  Co.,  234 
Inventor,    Mr.    F.    B.    Miles,    of    a 

steam-hammer,  .184 
Iron,  practical   effects  of  working, 

198 
samples   of   coal -stone    worked 

upon,   192 

samples  of  good  charcoal,   191 
shear  for  cutting  off,  272 
.  under  different  degrees  of  heat, 

steel  and,   186 

Jeffery  shop,  die-sinkers  in,   18 
Jeff ery  &  Co. ,  Thomas  B. ,  Kenosha, 

Wis.,  11 
Jessops  steel,  samples  worked  upon, 

188 

Jointed  swinghead  construction,   165 
Judgment,  what  is  good,  309 
Justice-hammer,      welding      wagon 

wheel  rims  with,  208 

Kahm,  Messrs.  J.  S.  Black  and  M. 

F.,   187 
Keying  wide-seat  dies,  98 


338 


INDEX 


Ladle-heater,  gas-fired,  160 
Layout  of  hardening  department,  142 
Lead-casting  as  proof  of  die,  20 
Lead-castings,  samples  of  proofs  of 

dies,  19 
Lead-pot    furnace    refitted    for    oil 

fuel,  146 
Lead-proofs  of  various  parts  to  be 

forged,  39 
Lehigh  Valley  Railroad  Company, 

284 

Link-cutter  in  chain-making,  238 
Link-winder  in  chain-making,  236, 

237 
Location  of  die-sinking  department, 

140 

Locomotive  boilers,  crowbar  for,  265 
Locomotive   forging    made   in    hy- 
draulic machine,  258,  259 
London,  rifles  assembled  at  Tower 
,  of,  163 

Machine,  hot-pressed  nut,  254,  255 
job  for  the  heavy,  260 

Machine-dies,  forging,  269 

Machine -forging,  275 

Machinery,  value  of  modern,  89 

Machinery-steel,    samples    worked 
upon,  190 

Machines,  die-sinking,  86 

Machining  inside   surface    of   con- 
nect! ig-rods,  281 

Machinist,  American,  article  on  steel, 
187 

Making  a  double-faced  hammer,  106 

Making  a  drop-forging  die,  13 

Malleable  iron  parts,  7 

Manganese  in  steel,   137 

Man-hole  seatings,  die  for  forging 
and  flanging,  58 

Manufacturing  connecting-rods  for 
steam-engines,  277 

Mare  Island  navy  yard,  41 

Materials,  effects  of  alloying,   136 
used  for  dies,  50 

i        used  in  steel  and  iron  experi- 
ments,  186 

Metal  parts,  union  between,  95 

Metal  wheels,  how  made,  215 
details  of,  221 

Method  of  installing  apparatus  for 
oil  fuel,  156 

Micrometer,  inside,  19 

Micrometrical  forgings,  31 

Miles,  first  hammer  made  by  Mr., 
185 

Miles,    Mr.  F.  B.,  a  steam-hammer 
inventor,   184 

Military  rifle,  die-sinking  for  butt 
plate  of,  30 


Milling-rod  ends,  278 

Milling  sides  of  rods,  278 

Milling-tools  used  in  die-sinking, 
17 

Miner  &  Peck  Mfg.  Co.,  drop-ham- 
mer effects,  174 

Modeling,  casting,  and  dropping 
drop-dies,  77 

Models,  plaster-of-Paris,  38 

Modern  drop -forge  and  harden  ing - 
plant,  plan  of,  141 

Modern  machinery,  value  of,  89 

Molding  elevator  bucket  dies,  260 

Moline  tire-bender,  205 

Movements,  saving  unnecessary, 
104 

Multicylinder  hydraulic  forging- 
ma chine,  253 

Natural  gas  tire-welding,  207 
Natural  gas,  using  for  heating,  212 
New  England  States,  drop-hammer 

men  in,  99 

New  Zealand  railways,  287 
Nickel  in  steel,   137 
Niles-Bement-Pond  Co.,  185 
Norway  iron  samples  worked  upon, 

193 

Number  plate,  embossed,  66 
Nut-machine,  hot-pressed,  254 

Oil -burning  forges  and  heaters,   154 

Oil  fuel,  advantages  of,  146 
burners  for,   160 
refitted  blast-forge  for,   145 
refitted  lead-pot  furnace  for,  146 

Oil-heating  furnaces  and  drop-ham- 
mers, 25 

O.  K.  Steel  made  in  Sheffield,  Eng- 
land, the  best,  318 

O.  K.  Tool  Holder  Company,  Shel- 
ton,  Conn.,  312 

O.  K.  Tool-holder  plant  visited  by 
author,  318 

O.  K.  tools  and  holder,  set  of,  316 

Open  dies  for  forgings,  closed  and, 


Pacific  Coast,  drop -forging  on  the, 

41 

Paper  pulleys,   166 
Passenger-car  truck  swing-hanger, 

263 

Patent  Die  Company,  76 
Pennsylvania  Railroad,  256 
Pin  ends,  forging-dies  for,   112 
Piping,  arrangements  of,     50 
Piping  for  drop-die  hardening,    306 
Plan    of    modern    drop -forge    and 

hardening-plant,   141 


INDEX 


339 


Plan  of  belt-punch  die,  126 

Planing  a  die-block,  12 

Planing   ends    of    connecting-rods, 
280 

Planing  tools  for  finishing  forgings, 
129 

Plant,    drop-forge    and    hardening, 

139 

plan  of  modern  drop-forge  and 
hardening,   141 

Plaster-of-Paris  models,  38 

Police  shield,  embossed,  65 

Portland  cement  for  drop-hammer 
foundations,   170 

Practise  for  hydraulic-forgings,  298 

Pratt    &   Whitney   Company   drop- 
hammer  foundations,   179 

Preheating,  fuel  for,  301 

Press  and  tools,  spoke-forming,  209 

Press,  description  of  hydraulic,  294 
dies,  forging  for  hammers,  104 
gives  best  results,  hydraulic,  137 
pressure  for  small  work  in  hy- 
draulic, 252 
rapid -action  hydraulic  forging, 

247,  249,  250 

ten  thousand-ton  hydraulic,  290 
tremendous     pressure    of     hy- 
draulic, 248 

wheel -flange,  muffle,  and  form- 
ing, 213 

Pressed  steel  gear  blank,  218 

Pressed  steel  gears,  214 

Presses,  foundations  for  flat-ware, 
321 

Pressure  for  small  work  in  hydrau- 
lic press,  252 

Pressure  in  dies,  method  of  apply- 
ing impact  or,  56 

Pressure  of  hydraulic  forging-press, 
tremendous,  248 

Prevision  and  supervision,  91 

Principles  in  holding  dies,  first,  99 

Principles     of      drop-forging     and 
stamping  large  parts,  51 

Process  of  welding  in  chain -mak- 
ing, 240 

Process,  typing  or  hubbing,  60 

Profiler,  working  dies  in  the,  39 

Profiling  machine,  finishing-die  on, 
14 

Proof,  the  lead -casting  as  proof  of 
die,  20 

Pulleys,  paper,  166 

Punch,  belt,   126 

Punches    and    dies    for    trimming 
hand-vise  forgings,  131 

Punches,  shaping  of  hydraulic,  298 

Punching     eight      rivet-holes      in 
flanges,  215 


Punching  holes,  semi,  57 

through  bosses,  56 
Punching  small   holes  in  work  in 
dies,  56 

Railroad  shop,  forging  with  dies  in, 

284 
Ratchet  drill-handle,  drop-forging  a, 

34 

first  operation  on,  35 
second  operation  on,  36 
Reed,  Ezekiel,  1786  and  1798,  247 
Refitted    blast -forge   for    oil    fuel, 

145 
Refitted  coal   forges   and   furnaces 

for  fuel-oil,   148 
Refitted  lead -pot  furnace  for  oil  fuel, 

146 
Repairing  dies,   staking  dies  used 

for,  20 

Riffles  and  their  use,  71 
Rifflers,    files,    etc.,    used    by   die- 
sinkers,  16 

Rim  and  spokes  as  machined,  225 
Rim-bending  rolls  for  wheels,  205 
Riveting-press,  ready  to  go  on  the, 

217 

Riveting-spokes  in  wheels,  210 
Rock  drill  used  as  a  steam-hammer, 

271 

Roughing  tools,  74 
Round  and  square  upsetting,  forg- 

ing-dies  for,   116 
Rubens,  head  of,  82 

Sacramento,  California,  railroad 
shops  at,  270 

Scrapers,  files,  rifflers,  etc.,  used  by 
die-sinkers,  16 

Screw-press  for  chain-making,  231 

Section  of  wheel -rim,  enlarged,  226 

Section  view  of  drop-hammer,   167 

Sectional  dies,  46 

Sectional  drop -forge  dies,  48 

Semi -punching  holes,  57 

Setting  the  die,   135 

Shanking  dies  with  high-speed  cut- 
ting-tool, 311 

Shapes  produced  by  hydraulic  forg- 
ing, 297 

Shaping  of  forging-punches,  hy- 
draulic, 298 

Shear  for  cutting  off  iron,  272 

Shelton,  Conn.,  The  O.  K.  Tool 
Holder  Co.  at,  312 

Sheffield,  England,  O.  K.  Steel  best 
made  in,  318 

Ship-fittings,  drop-forge  dies  for,  43 
drop -forged,  42 

Silicon  in  steel,   137 


340 


INDEX 


Single  and  double  opening  forge- 
furnaces,   156 

Sinking-dies,   drop-hammer  for,  79 
Slab  truck  for  forge -shop,   127 
Smith-working  at  the  anvil,  52 
Spaulding,  Mr.  B.  F.,   187 
Special  brine-tank,   144 
Specimen  of  work  done  in  Champ  - 

ney  shop,  81 
Spoiling  dies,  195 

Spoke-forming  press  and  tools,  209 
Spokes  and  rim,  assembling  flanges 

and  hub  with,  216 
Spokes,  punching  holes  for  wheel  - 

spokes,  224 

Spring-clamp  for  wheel -spokes,  227 
Square  upsetting,    forging  dies  for 

round  and,   116 

Squeezing,  drop -forging  or,   134 
Staking-tools    used    for    repairing 

dies,  20 

Stamped  forgings,  58 
Stamping  art,  growth  of  drop -forg- 
ing and,  50 

Stamping,  embossed,  68 
Steam,  helve,  trip,  and  drop  ham- 
mers, 140 

Steam-engines,  manufacturing  con- 
necting-rods for,  277 
Steam-hammer,  4,000-pound,  122 
and  size  of  work,  capacity  of, 

182 

Bement,  Miles  &  Co.,  184 
capacity  of,  184 
emergency,  270 
forging  under,  133 
in  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works, 

first,   184 
making  elevator  buckets  with, 

257 

rock-drill  use  as,  271 
Steam-hammers,    horse-power,     184 
Steel,  aluminum  in,  137 

and  iron  under  different  degrees 

of  heat,   186 
and  wrought  iron,  difference  in 

treatment  of,  54 
blank  for  die,  28 
chromium  in,  136 
clipper,   121 

cutting  points,  forging  the  high- 
speed, 317 
die-holder,  etc.,  28 
fuel  used  in  tests  on,  190 
gear  blanks,  pressed,  218,  219, 

220 

high-speed,  309 
manganese  in,   137 
nickel  in,   137 
tests,  195 


Steel,  samples  of  American  worked 

upon,  189 
samples     of     Jessops     worked 

upon,   188 
samples  of  machinery  worked 

upon,   190 
silicon  in,   137 
titanium  in,   137 
tungsten  in,   137 
wheels,  224 
Steels,  forging  high-grade,   136 

hardening  drop-dies  of  various, 

304 

vanadium,  137 
Steering-gear  part,  drop-forging  and 

bending-die  for,  23 
Stock,  drilling  out  the,  72 

for  forging  ratchet  drill-handle, 

34 
Stone     coal -iron,    samples    worked 

upon,   190 
Stripping  die  for  removing  fin  and 

its  work,  52 
Supervision,  value  of  prevision  and, 

91 
Swaging- machine,  job  for,  260 

Tack  and  tack-dies,  244 
Tack-dies,  tack  and,  244 
Tack-making  tools,  complete  set  of, 

246 

and  their  action,  245 
Tank,  brine,  143 

special  brine,  144 
Temper,  drawing  the,  in  drop-dies, 

328 

Tension  test,  results  of,  194 
Ten -thousand -ton   hydraulic   press, 

290,  291 

Tests,  on  steel,  fuel  used  in,  190 
results  of  tension,  194 
wrought-iron     and     machinery 

steel,  195 
Time-card    for     the    forging-shop, 

288,  289 

Tire-bender,  Moline,  205 
Titanium  in  steel,   137 
Tongs  for  holding  dies,  60 
Tool -dressing  forge  furnace,   157 
Tool -holder    making,    drop-forging 

practise  in,  37 

Tool -holders  and  their  use,  combi- 
nation, 312 
Tool -holders,  high-speed  steel  and, 

310 
Tool -steel,    samples  of   American, 

worked  upon,  189 
Tools,  complete  set  of  tack-making, 

246 
employed  in  making  drop-dies,  16 


INDEX 


341 


Tools,  flange  forming,  214 

for   checkering    and    grooving 

vise- jaws,   132 
for  forging  a  fulcrum  bracket, 

set  of,  110 

forging  without  special,  291 
roughing,  74 
Tower  of  London,  rifles  assembled 

at,   163 

Treadle,  counterbalanced,   164 
Treatment  of    steel    and  wrought  - 

iron,  difference  in,  54 
Trimming,      hand-vise       forgings, 

punches,  and  dies  for,  131 
wrench  after,  125 
wrench  before,   125 
wrench  blanks,  124 
Trimming-die,   finished  with  high- 
speed cutting-tools,  315 
for  belt-punch,  126,  127 
Trimming-dies,  24 
Trip-hammers,  board,  steam,  helve, 

and  drop,  140 

Tube  and  flange,  welding,  301 
Tube,  brazing  furnace,   159 
Tungsten  in  steel,  137 
Twisting  experiments,  practical  re- 
sults of,   191 

Typing  or  hubbing  process,  60 
Typing  tools  used  in  die-sinking,   18 

Ulrich    and    Fred    L.     Eberhardt, 
Messrs.,  214 

Union  between  metal  parts,  95 

United  States  patent  of  drop-ham- 
mer, first,   164 

Upsetting,    forging-dies   for    round 

and  square,   116 
round  to  square,   118 

Using  the  breaking-out  chisel,  73 

Value  of  modern  machinery,  89 
Vanadium  forging-dies,  36 
Vanadium  steels,   137 
Vermont,  development  of  drop-ham- 
mers in  State  of,   163 
Vernier  caliper  depth-gage,  19 
Vise,  before  and  after  closing,  hand, 

129 

hand,  with  shavings,   130 
hand,  work  on,   130 
jaws,  tools  for  checkering  and 
grooving,  132 

Water,    temperature   of   cooling   in 

drop-dies  hardening,  36 
Wear,  making  a  die  to  resist,  97 
Welded  chain,  methods  of  manufac- 
turing, 234 
present  method  of  making,  23 


Welding,     applications    of    autoge- 
nous, 299 

autogenous  and  electric,  136 
cast-iron  muzzle  and  flange  on 

cylinder,  302 
chains,  dies  for,  230 
hammer   in   chain -making,  239 
heating  metal  before,  300 
in    chain-making,    process    of, 

240 

machine,  in  chain-making,  238 
tire,  natural  gas,  207 
top  of  cylinder,  301 
tube  and  flange,  301 
Weldless    chains,    new   method    of 

making,  228 

Westinghouse  air-brake,  287 
Wheel  construction,  complete  details 

of,  228 

Wheel,  making  a  wheelbarrow,  203 
operations  on  wheelbarrow,  204 
rim  and  spokes  as  machined, 

225 

rim,  section  enlarged,  226 
Wheel -spokes,  punching  holes  for, 

224 

spring- clamp  for,  227 
Wheel  tire-making,  218 
Wheelbarrow  wheel,  making  a,  203 
operations  on,  204 
parts  ready  for  assembling,  204 
Wheel -flange,  muffle  and   forming- 
press,  213 

Wheels,  details  of  metal,  221 
how  metal,  are  made,  215 
ready  for  hubs  and  flanges,  211 
ready  to  be  riveted,  217 
rim-bending  rolls  for,  205-206 
riveting  spokes  in,  210 
steel,  224 
welding    the    rims    on    Justice 

hammer,  208 

Wide-seat  dies,  keying,  98 
Wilkinson,  Jeremiah,   1775,  246 
Wire-brazing  furnace,   158 
Wooden  patterns  for  pair  of  heavy 

cast-iron  dies,  40 
Worcester  drop-hammer  men,  99 
Worm-cutter  and  chip,    high-speed 

steel,  319 

Wrench,  after  trimming,   125 
before  trimming,  125 
blanks,  trimming,   124 
drop-forging,  etc.,  24 
Wrought- iron  and  machinery  steel 

tests,   195 

Wrought-iron,    difference   in   treat- 
ment of  steel  and,  54 
for  small  forgings,  54 
tests,   195 


Do  you  know 

the  comparative 

values  of  various  fuels?     Have  you 

the   most  economical  furnace  equipment? 

The  question  of  fuel  is  one  which  to-day  demands  careful 
attention,  and  can  only  be  determined  after  careful  con- 
sideration of  the  nature  of  the  work,  base  cost  of  fuel  and 
the  money  investment.  We  are  prepared  to  furnish  figures 
showing  relative  economy  of  all  fuels,  taking  into  consid- 
eration direct  firing,  preheating  and  regeneration. 

This  table  of  comparative  fuel  values  is  copied  from  page  3  of  our  Cata- 
log F-2o: 

K-TND  OF  TA«;  Heat  units   Cu-  feet  to  e<lual 

GAS  inicu.ft.      i  gallon  of  oil 

Natural  Gas j 1000  140 

Coal  Gas,  20  C.P 675  208 

Carburetted  Water  Gas .'.  646  216 

Gasoline  Gas,  20  C.P 690  202 

Water  Gas  from  Bituminous  Coal .  377  376 

Water  Gas  from  Anthracite  Coal . .  313  447 

Producer  Gas 150  935 

Producer  Gas 90  1555 

— i  pound  average  oil equals  19,000  B.  T.  U. 


Rockwell  Furnace  Company 

is  at  your  service 

Furnace  building,  Economical  Furnace  building,  is  our 
specialty.  We  can  better  your  conditions.  We  employ  a 
force  of  competent  expert  furnace  engineers  especially 
trained  and  are  prepared  to  submit  specifications  and 
prices  on  complete  furnace  equipment,  USING  ANY 
FUEL,  and  guarantee  the  proper  operation. 


Rockwell  Furnace  Company 

26  Cortlandt  Street  Fisher  Building 

New  York  Chicago 


If  you  have  anything  in  my  line, 

put  your  time  against   mine  and 

consult  me;  if  I  help  you  I  charge 

a  moderate  fee. 

u     TJ 

EXPERT   IN 

Shop  Practice  Pertaining  to  Sheet 
Metal  Formation,  The  Press  Work- 
ing of  Metals,  Patent  Causes,  Ma- 
chinery and  Tools  Involved:  In 
Steel  Treatment  and  Tempering, 
In  Interchangeable  Manufacturing 
of  Machinery,  In  Drop  Forging  and 
Die  Sinking,  and  in  the  Reduction 
of  Shop  and  Labor  Costs. 

tr     TU 
Joseph  V.  Woodworth 

Mechanical  Expert  and  Engineer 

Forty-Two  South  Eighth  Street 

Brooklyn,   N.  Y. 

All    inquiries    given    my    personal    attention 


1911 


CATALOGUE 


of 


Practical  Books 


Published  and  for  sale  by1 

The  Norman  W,  Henley  Publishing  Company 

Publishers  of  Scientific  and  Practical  Books 

132  NASSAU  STREET         NEW  YORK,  U.S.A. 


All  books  in  this  Catalogue  sent  prepaid  on  receipt  or  price. 


SUBJECT    INDEX 


PAGE 

Manual  Training  

PAGE 

16 

.7     I  ^     20 

Marine  Engines  

iC 

'j 

Mechanical  Movements        

j: 

Metal  Turning  

Boilers                     ....               

•2      J-7       l6 

Milling  Machines  

16 

9 

Mining        

17 

Cams        .... 

II 

Car  Charts 

2 

Patents  

ii 

Change  Gear  

ii 

Pattern  Making  

i; 

Charts        

Perfumery  

Chemistry 

Pipes  

2C 

Coal  Mining1 

ig 

Coke                        

Producer  Gas  

1C 

Punches        

6 

Concrete           

•  •  ••           4     5 

Receipt  Book  

ig 

Refrigeration  

ii 

c 

Rubber  Stamps                            

ig 

Dies        

:  6 

Saws  • 

ig 

6    18 

Sheet  Metal  Working  

6 

Drop  Forging       

.    6 

Shop  Tools  

15 

0 

Shop  Construction  

15 

Electricity  

...7,8!    0 

Shop  Management  

.  .  i; 

ID 

...     .                 i 

•) 

Smoke  Prevention  ... 

9,  i: 

Fuel           

g     12 

Soldering  

Gas  Manufacturing.  .  .  . 

.  .    IO 

Steam  Heating  

2( 

Gears  

10 

Steam  Pipes  

2( 

7 

Steel  

....                ....    2 

Hot  Water  Heating" 

Superheated  Steam    ....        .   . 

....    I 

Horse-  Power  Chart  

IQ 

Switchboards        

Tapers       

I 

Ice  Making  

II 

Telephone  

18 

Threads  

.  .    i 

Interchangeable  Manufacturing 

14 

Tools  

1^,  15,   1 

.  .  .  .        ....  ii 

Ventilation         

2 

Lathes        

ii 

Valve  Gear  

I 

Lighting  (Electric)  ... 

7 

Valve  Setting       

I 

i^ 

Walschaert  Valve  Gear  

I 

Liquid  Air        

.  .  .  .           ....    12 

Watchmaking  

,  2 

Locomotive  Engineering 

Wiring.  

Machinist's  Book*-... 

...U,  15,  16 

Wireless  Telephones  

INDEX     BY    AUTHORS 


PAGE 

Alexander,  J.  H 3 

Askinson,  G.  W 17 

Barr,  Wm.  M 9,  12 

Barrows,  F.  W 17 

Bauer,  Dr.  G 16 

Baxter,  Wm 7,    8 

Benjamin.  Park 16 

Blackall,  k.  H 12,  13 

Booth  and  Kershaw 9 

Booth,  Wm.  H 20 

Buchetti.  J 19 

Byrom,  T.  H 17 

Byrom  and  Christopher •  4 

Cockin,  T.  H 17 

Colvin,  Fred  H 12,  13 

Colvin-Cheney 15,  20 

Colvin-Stabel 16 

Crane,  W.  E 19 

Dalby,  H.  A 14 

Engstrom,  D.  Ag 10 


PAGE 

Erskine-Murray 9 

Fowler.Geo.  L 3,  13 

Garbe,  Robert 12 

Goddard,  Dwight 19 

Grimshaw,  Robert 13,16,18,  19 

Harrison,  Newton 7 

Haslam,  Arthur  P 8 

Hiscox,  G.  D.  .4, 10,  n,  15, 17, 18,  19 

Hobart,J.F 3 

Homer,  J.  G 4,  n,  14,  16 

Houghton,  A.  A 4,  5 

Johnson,  J.  P 17 

King,  A.  G 20 

Kleinhans,  F.  A 13 

Kraus,  H.T.  C 6 

Lewis,  M.  H 5 

Lummis-Paterson 8 

Markharn,E.  R 20 

Mathot,  R.  E 10 

Parsell  and  Weed 10 


PAGl 

Perrigo,  Oscar  E 9,  ii,  i 

Pratt,  H .... 

Putnam,  Xeno  W i 

Radcliffe  and  Gushing 

Richards-Colvin 

Rouillion,  Louis n,  i 

Royle,  H.M i 

Saunier,  Claudius 2 

Sloane,  T.  O'Conor...5,  7,  8, 12,  i 

Starbuck,  R.  M i 

Sylvester  and  Oberg 

Usher,  John  T i 

Vandervoort,  W.  H i 

Walker,  S.  F 

Wallis-Taylor,  A.  J i 

Weed,  A.  J...., 

Wood,  Wm.W i 

Woodworth,  J.  V 6, 14,  2 

Wright,  J 


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CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 


BALLOONS  AND  FLYING  MACHINES 

MODEL  BALLOONS  AND  FLYING  MACHINES.     WITH  A  SHORT  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 
PROGRESS  OF  AVIATION.     By  J.  H.  ALEXANDER. 

This  book  has  been  written  with  a  view  to  assist  those  who  desire  to  construct  a  model  airship 
or  flying  machine.  It  contains  five  folding  plates  of  working  drawings,  each  sheet  containing 
a  different  sized  machine.  Much  instruction  and  amusement  can  be  obtained  from  the  making 
and  flying  of  these  models. 

A  short  account  of  the  progress  of  aviation  is  included,  which  will  render  the  book  of  greater 
interest.  Several  illustrations  of  full  sized  airship  and  flying  machines  of  the  latest  types  are 
scattered  throughout  the  text.  This  practical  work  gives  data,  working  drawings,  and  details 
which  will  assist  materially  those  interested  in  the  problems  of  flight.  127  pages,  45  illustra- 
tions, 5  folding  plates.  Price $1.50 

BRAZING  AND   SOLDERING 

BRAZING  AND  SOLDERING.     By  JAMES  F.  HOBART. 

The  only  book  that  shows  you  just  how  to  handle  any  job  of  brazing  or  soldering  that  comes 
along;  tells  you  what  mixture  to  use,  how  to  make  a  furnace  if  you  need  one.  Full  of  kinks, 
fourth  edition.  .  25  cents 

CHARTS 


BOX   CAR   CHART. 

A  chart  showing  the  anatomy  of  a  box  car,  having  every  part  of  the  car  numbered  and  its 
proper  name  given  in  a  reference  list 20  cents- 

GONDOLA   CAR   CHART. 

A  chart  showing  the  anatomy  of  a  gondola  car,  having  every  part  of  the  car  numbered  and 
its  proper  reference  name  given  in  a  reference  list.  .  .  . 20  cents 

PASSENGER   QAR   CHART. 

A  chart  showing  the  anatomy  of  a  passenger  car,  having  every  part  of  the  car  numbered  and 
its  proper  name  given  in  a  reference  list .  20  cents 

WESTINGHOUSE   AIR-BRAKE   CHARTS. 

Chart  I. — Shows  (in  colors)  the  most  modern  Westinghouse  High  Speed  and  Signal  Equip- 
ment used  on  Passenger  Engines,  Passenger  Engine  Tenders,  and  Passenger  Cars.  Chart 
II. — Shows  (in  colors)  the  Standard  Westinghouse  Equipment  for  Freight  and  Switch  En- 
gines, Freight  and  Switch  Engine  Tenders,  and  Freight  Cars.  Price  for  the  set  .  50  cents 

TRACTIVE  POWER   CHART. 

A  chart  whereby  you  can  find  the  tractive  power  or  drawbar  pull  of  any  locomotive,  without 
making  a  figure.  Shows  what  cylinders  are  equal,  how  driving  wheels  and  steam  pressure 
affect  the  power.  What  sized  engine  you  need  to  exert  a  given  drawbar  pull  or  anything 
you  desire  in  this  line 50  cents 

HORSE   POWER   CHART. 

Shows  the  horse  power  of  any  stationary  engine  without  calculation.  No  matter  what  the 
cylinder  diameter  of  stroke;  the  steam  pressure  or  cut-off;  the  revolutions,  or  whether  con- 
densing or  non-condensing,  it's  all  there.  Easy  to  use,  accurate,  and  saves  time  and  calcu- 
lations. Especially  useful  to  engineers  and  designers 50  cents 

BOILER  ROOM   CHART.     By  GEO,  L.  FOWLER. 

A  Chart — size  14  x  28  inches — showing  in  isometric  perspective  the  mechanisms  belonging 
in  a  modern  boiler  room.  Water  tube  boilers,  ordinary  grates  and  mechanical  stokers,  feed 
water  heaters  and  pumps  comprise  the  equipment.  The  various  parts  are  shown  broken  or 
removed,  so  that  the  internal  construction  is  fully  illustrated.  Each  part  is  given  a  reference 
number,  and  these,  with  the  corresponding  name,  are  given  in  a  glossary  printed  at  the  sides. 
This  chart  is  really  a  dictionary  of  the  boiler  room — the  names  of  more  than  200  parts  being 
given.  It  is  educational — worth  many  times  its  cost 25  cents 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

CIVIL  ENGINEERING 

HENLEY'S  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  ENGINEERING  AND  ALLIED  TRADES. 

Edited  by  JOSEPH  G.  HORNER,  A.M.I.,  M.E. 

This  set  of  five  volumes  contains  about  2,500  pages  with  thousands  of  illustrations,  including 
diagrammatic  and  sectional  drawings  with  full  explanatory  details.  This  work  covers  the 
entire  practice  of  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineering.  The  best  known  experts  in  all  branches 
of  engineering  have  contributed  to  these  volumes.  The  Cyclopedia  is  admirably  well  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  the  beginner  and  the  self-taught  practical  man,  as  well  as  the  mechanical  en- 
gineer, designer,  draftsman,  shop  superintendent,  foreman,  and  machinist.  The  work  will  be 
found  a  means  of  advancement  to  any  progressive  man.  It  is  encyclopedic  in  scope,  thorough 
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and  without  unnecessary  technicalities  or  formulae.  The  articles  are  as  brief  as  may  be  and 
yet  give  a  reasonably  clear  and  explicit  statement  of  the  subject,  and  are  written  by  men  who 
have  had  ample  practical  experience  in  the  matters  of  which  they  write.  It  tells  you  all  you 
want  to  know  about  engineering  and  tells  it  so  simply,  so  clearly,  so  concisely,  that  one  cannot 
help  but  understand.  As  a  work  of  reference  it  is  without  a  peer.  $6.00  per  volume.  For 
complete  set  of  five  volumes,  price $35.00 

COKE 


COKE— MODERN  COKING  PRACTICE;  INCLUDING  THE  ANALYSIS]  OF  MATE- 
RIALS AND  PRODUCTS.  By  T.  H.  BYROM  and  J.  E.  CHRISTOPHER. 
A  handbook  for  those  engaged  in  Coke  manufacture  and  the  recovery  of  By-products.  Fully 
illustrated  with  folding  plates.  It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  authors,  in  preparing  this  book, 
to  produce  one  which  shall  be  of  use  and  benefit  to  those  who  are  associated  with,  or  inter- 
ested in,  the  modern  developments  of  the  industry.  Contents:,  I.  Introductory.  II.  Gen- 
eral Classification  of  Fuels.  III.  Coal  Washing.  IV.  The  Sampling  and  Valuation  of  Coal, 
Coke,  etc.  V.  The  Calorific  Power  of  Coal  and  Coke.  VI.  Coke  Ovens.  VII.  Coke  Ovens, 
continued.  VIII.  Coke  Ovens,  continued.  IX.  Charging  and  Discharging  of  Coke  Ovens, 
X.  Cooling  and  C9ndensing  Plant.  XI.  Gas  Exhausters.  XII.  Composition  and  Analysis 
of  Ammoniacal  Liquor.  XIII.  Working-up  of  Ammoniacal  Liquor.  XIV.  Treatment  of 
Waste  Gases  from  Sulphate  Plants.  XV.  Valuation  of  Ammonium  Sulphate.  XVI.  Direct 
Recovery  of  Ammonia  from  Coke  Oven  Gases.  XVII.  Surplus  Gas  from  Coke  Oven.  Use- 
ful Tables.  Very  fully  illustrated.  Price $3. 50  net 

COMPRESSED  AIR 

COMPRESSED  AIR  IN  ALL  ITS  APPLICATIONS.     By  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox. 

This  is  the  most  complete  book  on  the  subject  of  Air  that  has  even  been  issued,  and  its  thirty- 
five  chapters  include  about  every  phase  of  the  subject  one  can  think  of.  It  may  be  called  an 
encyclopedia  of  compressed  air.  It  is  written  by  an  expert,  who,  in  its  665  pages,  has  dealt 
with  the  subject  in  a  comprehensive  manner,  no  phase  of  it  being  omitted.  Over  500  illustra- 
tions, 5th  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Cloth  bound,  $5.00:  Half  Morocco,  price  $6.50 

CONCRETE 


ORNAMENTAL  CONCRETE  WITHOUT  MOLDS.     By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON. 

The  process  for  making  ornamental  concrete  without  molds,  has  long  been  held  as  a  secret  and 
now,  for  the  first  time,  this  process  is  given  to  the  public.  The  book  reveals  the  secret  and  is 
the  only  book  published  which  explains  a  simple,  practical  method  whereby  the  concrete  worker 
is  enabled,  by  employing  wood  and  metal  templates  of  different  designs,  to  mold  or  model  in 
concrete  any  Cornice,  Archivolt,  Column,  Pedestal,  Base  Cap,  Urn  or  Pier  in  a  monolithic 
form — right  upon  the  job.  These  may  be  molded  in  units  or  blocks,  and  then  built  up  to  suit 
the  specifications  demanded.  This  work  is  fully  illustrated,  with  detailed  engravings.  Price 

$2.00 
CONCRETE  FROM  SAND  MOLDS.     By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON. 

A  Practical  Work  treating  on  a  process,  which  has  heretofore  been  held  as  a  trade  secret,  by 
the  few  who  possessed  it,  and  which  will  successfully  mold  every  and  any  class  of  ornamental 
concrete  work.  The  process  of  molding  concrete  with  sand  molds  is  of  the  utmost  practical 
value,  possessing  the  manifold  advantages  of  a  low  cost  of  molds,  the  ease  and  rapidity  of 
operation,  perfect  details  to  all  ornamental  designs,  density,  and  increased  strength  of  the 
concrete,  perfect  curing  of  the  work  without  attention  and  the  easy  removal  of  the  molds  re- 
gardless of  any  undercutting  the  design  may  have.  192  pages.  Fully  illustrated.  Price  $2.0O 

CONCRETE  WALL  FORMS.     By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON. 

A.  new  automatic  wall  clamp  is  illustrated  with  working  drawings.  Other  types  of  wall 
forms,  clamps,  separators,  etc.,  are  also  illustrated  and  explained 50  cents 

CONCRETE  FLOORS   AND   SIDEWALKS.   By  A.   A.    HOUGHTON. 

The  molds  for  molding  squares,  hexagonal  and  many  other  styles  of  mosaic  floor  and  side- 
walk blocks  are  fully  illustrated  and  explained.  ...  50  cents 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD!  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

CONCRETE  SILOS.     By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON. 

Complete  working  drawings  and  specifications  are  given  for  several  styles  of  concrete  silos, 
with  illustrations  of  molds  for  monolithic  and  block  silos.  The  tables,  data  and  information 
presented  in  this  book  are  of  the  utmost  value  in  planning  and  constructing  all  forms  of  concrete 
silos 50  cents 

CONCRETE   CHIMNEYS,    SLATE   AND   ROOF  TILES.     By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON. 

The  manufacture  of  all  types  of  concrete  slate  and  roof  tile  is  fully  treated.  Valuable  data 
on  all  forms  of  reinforced  concrete  roofs  are  contained  within  its  pages.  The  construction  of 
concrete  chimneys  by  block  and  monolithic  systems  is  fully  illustrated  and  described.  A 
number  of  ornamental  designs  of  chimney  construction  with  molds  are  shown  in  this  valu- 
able treatise 50  cents 

MOLDING    AND    CURING   ORNAMENTAL   CONCRETE.     By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON. 

The  proper  proportions  of  cement  and  aggregates  for  various  finishes,  also  the  methods  of 
thoroughly  mixing  and  placing  in  the  molds,  are  fully  treated.  An  exhaustive  treatise  on  this 
subject  that  every  concrete  worker  will  find  of  daily  use  and  value 50  cents 

CONCRETE    MONUMENTS,    MAUSOLEUMS    AND    BURIAL    VAULTS.        By    A.    A. 

HOUGHTON. 

The  molding  of  concrete  monuments  to  imitate  the  most  expensive  cut  stone  is  explained  in 
this  treatise,  vvith  working  drawings  of  easily  built  molds.  Cutting  inscriptions  and  designs 
is  also  fully  treated 50  cents 

CONCRETE  BATH  TUBS,  AQUARIUMS  AND  NATATORIUMS.  By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON. 

Simple  molds  and  instruction  are  given  for  molding  many  styles  of  concrete  bath  tubs,  swim- 
ming pools,  etc.  These  molds  are  easily  built  and  permit  rapid  and  successful  work.  50  cents 

ARTISTIC   CONCRETE  BRIDGES.     By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON. 

A  number  of  ornamental  conciete  bridges  with  illustrations  of  molds  are  given.  A  collapsible 
center  or  core  for  bridges,  culverts  and  sewers  is  fully  illustrated  with  detailed  instructions  for 
building 50  cents 

CONSTRUCTING   CONCRETE   PORCHES.     By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON. 

A  number  of  designs  with  working  drawings  of  molds  are  fully  explained  so  any  one  can  easily 
construct  different  styles  of  ornamental  Concrete  porches  without  the  purchase  of  expensive 
molds '  . 50  cents 

CONCRETE   FLOWER   POTS,   BOXES    AND    JARDINIERES.     By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON. 

The  molds  for  producing  many  original  designs  of  flower  pots,  urns,  flower  boxes,  jardinieres, 
etc.,  are  fully  illustrated  and  explained,  so  the  worker  can  easily  construct  and  operate  same. 

50  cents 

CONCRETE   FOUNTAINS   AND    LAWN    ORNAMENTS.     By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON. 

The  molding  of  a  number  of  designs  of  lawn  seats,  curbing,  hitching  posts,  pergolas,  sun  dials 
and  other  forms  of  ornamental  concrete  for  the  ornamentation  of  lawns  and  gardens,  is 
fully  illustrated  and  described 50  cents 

CONCRETE   FOR  THE   FARM   AND   SHOP.     By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON. 

The  molding  of  drain  tile,  tanks,  cisterns,  fence  posts,  stable  floors,  hog  and  poultry  houses 
and  all  the  purposes  for  which  concrete  is  an  invaluable  aid  to  the  farmer  are  numbered 
among  the  contents  of  this  handy  volume 50  cents 

POPULAR  HANDBOOK  FOR  CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  USERS.     By  MYRON  H.  LEWIS, 

This  is  a  concise  treatise  of  the  principles  and  methods  employed  in  the  manufacture  and  use 
of  cement  in  all  classes  of  modern  works.  The  author  has  brought  together  in  this  work,  all 
the  saiient  matter  of  interest  to  the  user  of  concrete  and  its  many  diversified  products.  The 
matter  is  presented  in  logical  and  systematic  order,  clearly  written,  fully  illustrated  and  free 
from  involved  mathematics.  Everything  of  value  to  the  concrete  user  is  given  including  kinds 
of  cement  employed  in  construction,  concrete  architecture,  inspection  and  testing,  waterproof- 
ing, coloring  and  painting,  rules,  tables,  working,  and  cost  data.  Price $3.50 


DICTIONARIES 

STANDARD  ELECTRICAL  DICTIONARY.     By  T.  O'CoNOR  SLOANE. 

An  indispensable  work  to  all  interested  in  electrical  science.  Suitable  alike  for  the  student 
and  professional.  A  practical  hand-book  of  reference  containing  definitions  of  about  5,000 
distinct  words,  terms  and  phrases.  The  definitions  are  terse  and  concise  and  include  every 
term  used  in  electrical  science.  Recently  issued.  An  entirely  new  edition.  Should  be  in 
the  possession  of  all  who  desire  to  keep  abreast  with  the  progress  of  this  branch  of  science. 
Complete,  concise  and  convenient.  682  pages.  393  illustrations.  Price $3.00 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD.  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

DIES— METAL   WORK 

DIES,  THEIR  CONSTRUCTION  AND  USE  FOR  THE  MODERN  WORKING  OF  SHEET 
METALS.  By  J.  V.  WOODWORTH. 

A  most  useful  book,  and  one  which  should  be  in  the  hands  of  all  engaged  in  the  press  working 
of  metals;  treating  on  the  Designing,  Constructing,  and  Use  of  Tools,  Fixtures  and  Devices 
together  with  the  manner  in  which  they  should  be  used  in  the  Power  Press,  for  the  cheap  and 
rapid  production  of  the  great  variety  of  sheet  metal  articles  now  in  use.  It  is  designed  as  a 
guide  to  the  production  of  sheet  metal  parts  at  the  minimum  of  cost  with  the  maximum  of 
output.  The  hardening  and  tempering  of  Press  tools  and  the  classes  of  work  which  may  be 
produced  to  the  best  advantage  by  the  use  of  dies  in  the  power  press  are  fully  treated.  Its 
505  illustrations  show  dies,  press  fixtures  and  sheet  metal  working  devices,  the  descriptions 
of  which  are  so  clear  and  practical  that  all  metal-working  mechanics  will  be  able  to  understand 
how  to  design,  construct  and  use  them.  Many  of  the  dies  and  press  fixtures  treated  were 
either  constructed  by  the  author  or  under  his  supervision.  Others  were  built  by  skilful 
mechanics  and  are  in  use  in  large  sheet  metal  establishments  and  machine  shops.  Price  $3.00 

PUNCHES,  DIES  AND  TOOLS  FOR  MANUFACTURING  IN  PRESSES.  By  J.  V.  WOOD- 
WORTH. 

This  work  is  a  companion  volume  to  the  author's  elementary  work  entitled  "Dies,  Their 
Construction  and  Use."  It  does  not  go  into  the  details  of  die  making  to  the  extent  of  the 
author's  previous  book,  but  gives  a  comprehensive  review  of  the  field  of  operations  carried  on 
by  presses.  A  large  part  of  the  information  given  has  been  drawn  from  the  author's  personal 
experience.  It  might  well  be  termed  an  Encyclopedia  of  Die  Making,  Punch  Making,  Die 
Sinking,  Sheet  Metal  Working,  and  Making  of  Special  Tools,  Sub-presses,  Devices  and  Mechani- 
cal Combinations  for  Punching,  Cutting,  Bending,  Forming,  Piercing,  Drawing,  Compressing 
and  Assembling  Sheet  Metal  Parts,  and  also  Articles  of  other  Materials  in  Machine  Tools. 
Price $4.00 

DROP  FORGING,  DIE  SINKING  AND  MACHINE  FORMING  OF  STEEL.  By  J.  V.  WOOD- 
WORTH. 

This  is  a  practical  treatise  on  Modern  Shop  Practice,  Processes,  Methods,  Machines,  Tools  and 
Details,  treating  on  The  Hot  and  Cold  Machine-Forming  of  Steel  and  Iron  into  Finished  Shapes; 
Together  with  Tools,  Dies,  and  Machinery  involved  in  the  manufacture  of  Duplicate  Forgings 
and  Interchangeable  Hot  and  Cold  Pressed  Parts  from  Bar  and  Sheet  Metal.  Fully  illustrated 
by  300  detailed  illustrations.  Price $2.50 

DRAWING— SKETCHING    PAPER 

LINEAR  PERSPECTIVE  SELF-TAUGHT.     By  HERMAN  T.  C.  KRAUS. 

This  work  gives  the  theory  and  practice  of  linear  perspective,  as  used  in  architectural,  engi- 
neering, and  mechanical  drawings.  Persons  taking  up  the  study  of  the  subject  by  themselves 
will  be  able  by  the  use  of  the  instruction  given  to  readily  grasp  the  subject,  and  by  reason- 
able practice  become  good  perspective  draftsmen.  The  arrangement  of  the  book  is  good; 
the  plate  is  on  the  left-hand,  while  the  descriptive  text  follows  on  the  opposite  page,  so  as  to 
be  readily  referred  to.  The  drawings  are  on  sufficiently  large  scale  to  show  the  work  clearly 
and  are  plainly  figured.  The  whole  work  makes  a  very  complete  course  on  perspective  draw- 
ing, and  will  be  found  of  great  value  to  architects,  civil  and  mechanical  engineers,  patent 
attorneys,  art  designers,  engravers,  and  draftsmen $2.50 

PRACTICAL  PERSPECTIVE.     By  RICHARDS  and  COLVIN. 

Shows  just  how  to  make  all  kinds  of  mechanical  drawings  in  the  only  practical  perspective 
isometric.  Makes  everything  plain  so  that  any  mechanic  can  understand^ a  sketch  or  drawing 
in  this  way.  Saves  time  in  the  drawing  room,  and  mistakes  in  the  shops.  Contains  practical 
examples  of  various  classes  of  work 50  cents 

SELF-TAUGHT  MECHANICAL  DRAWING  AND  ELEMENTARY  MACHINE  DESIGN. 
By  F.  L.  SYLVESTER,  M.E.,  Draftsman,  with  additions  by  ERIK  OBERG,  associate 
editor  of  "Machinery." 

This  is  a  practical  treatise  on  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Machine  Design,  comprising  the  first 
principles  of  geometric  and  mechanical  drawing,  workshop  mathematics,  mechanics,  strength 
of  materials  and  the  calculations  and  design  of  machine  details.  Specially  prepared  for  the 
practical  mechanic  and  young  draftsman.  It  is  primarily  intended  for  the  man  who  must 
study  without  a  teacher.  It  is  clearly  written,  comprehensive,  and  carefully  arranged.  Price 

$2.00 

A  NEW  SKETCHING  PAPER. 

A  new  specially  ruled  paper  to  enable  y9u  to  make  sketches  or  drawings  in  isometric  perspective 
without  any  figuring  or  fussing.  It  is  being  used  for  shop  details  as  well  as  for  assembly 
drawings,  as  it  makes  one  sketch  do  the  work  of  three,  and  no  workman  can  help  seeing  just 
what  is  wanted.  Pads  of  40  sheets,  6x9  inches,  25  cents.  Pads  of  40  sheets,  9  x  12  inches. 

50  cents 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD.  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 
ELECTRICITY 


ARITHMETIC  OF  ELECTRICITY.     By  Prof.  T.  O'CoNOR  SLOANE. 

A  practical  treatise  on  electrical  calculations  of  all  kinds  reduced  to  a  series  of  rules,  all  erf  the 
simplest  forms,  and  involving  only  ordinary  arithmetic;  each  rule  illustrated  by  one  or  more 
practical  problems,  with  detailed  solution  of  each  one.  This  book  is  classed  among  the  most 
useful  works  published  on  the  science  of  electricity  covering  as  it  does  the  mathematics  of 
electricity  in  a  manner  that  will  attract  the  attention  of  those  who  are  not  familiar  with  alge- 
braical formulas.  160  pages.  Price $1.00 

COMMUTATOR  CONSTRUCTION.     By  WM.  BAXTER,  JR. 

The  business  end  of  any  dynamo  or  motor  of  the  direct  current  type  is  the  commutator.  This 
book  goes  into  the  designing,  building,  and  maintenance  of  commutators,  shows  how  to  locate 
troubles  and  how  to  remedy  them;  everyone  who  fusses  with  dynamos  needs  this.  25  cents 

DYNAMO    BUILDING  FOR  AMATEURS,  OR  HOW  TO  CONSTRUCT  A  FIFTY-WATT 
DYNAMO.     By  ARTHUR  J.  WEED,  Member  of  N.  Y.  Electrical  Society. 

This  book  is  a  practical  treatise  showing  in  detail  the  construction  of  a  small  dynamo  or  motor, 

the  entire  machine  work  of  which  can  be  done  on  a  small  foot  lathe. 

Dimensioned  working  drawings  are  given  for  each  piece  of  machine  work  and  each  operation 

is  clearly  described. 

This  machine,  when  used  as  a  dynamo,  has  an  output  of  fifty  watts;  when  used  as  a  motor  it 

will  drive  a  small  drill  press  or  lathe.     It  can  be  used  to  drive  a  sewing  machine  on  any  and  all 

ordinary  work. 

The  book  is  illustrated  with^more  than  sixty  original  engravings  showing  the  actual  construction 

of  the  different  parts.     Price,  paper,  50  cents.     Cloth $1.00 

ELECTRIC   FURNACES   AND  THEIR  INDUSTRIAL  APPLICATIONS.     By  J.  WRIGHT. 

This  is  a  book  which  will  prove  of  interest  to  many  classes  of  people;  the  manufacturer  who 
desires  to  know  what  product  can  be  manufactured  successfully  in  the  electric  furnace,  the 
chemist  who  wishes  to  post  himself  on  the  electro-chemistry,  and  the  student  of  science  who 
merely  looks  into  the  subject  from  curiosity.  The  book  is  not  so  scientific  as  to  be  of  use 
pnly  to  the  technologist,  nor  so  unscientific  as  to  suit  only  the  tyro  in  electro-chemistry;  it 
is  a  practical  treatise  of  what  has  been  done,  and  of  what  is  being  done,  both  experimentally 
and  commercially  with  the  electric  furnace. 

In  important  processes  not  only  are  the  chemical  equations  given,  but  complete  thermal  data 
are  set  forth  and  both  the  efficiency  of  the  furnace  and  the  cost  of  the  product  are  worked 
out,  thus  giving  the  work  a  solid  commercial  value  aside  from  its  efficacy  as  a  work  of  reference. 
The  practical  features  of  furnace  building  are  given  the  space  that  the  subject  deserves.  The 
forms  and  refractory  materials  used  in  the  linings,  the  arrangement  of  the  connections  to  the 
electrodes,  and  other  important  details  are  explained.  288  pages.  New  Revised  Edition. 
Fully  illustrated.  Price $3.00 

ELECTRIC   LIGHTING   AND   HEATING   POCKET  BOOK.     By  SYDNEY  F.  WALKER. 

This  book  puts  in  convenient  form  useful  information  regarding  the  apparatus  which  is  likely 
to  be  attached  to  the  mains  of  an  electrical  company.  Tables  of  units  and  equivalents  are 
included  and  useful  electrical  laws  and  formulas  are  stated. 

One  section  is  devoted  to  dynamos,  motors,  transformers  and  accessory  apparatus;  another 
to  accumulators,  another  to  switchboards  and  related  equipment,  a  fourth  to  a  description 
of  various  systems  of  distribution,  a  fifth  section  to  a  discussion  of  instruments,  both  for 
portable  use  and  switchboards;  another  section  deals  with  electric  lamps  of  various  types 
and  accessory  appliances,  and  the  concluding  section  is  given  up  to  electric  heating  apparatus. 
In  each  section  a  large  number  of  commercial  types  are  described,  frequent  tables  of  dimen- 
sions being  included.  A  great  deal  of  detail  information  of  each  line  of  apparatus  is  given 
and  the  illustrations  shown  give  a  good  idea  of  the  general  appearance  of  the  apparatus  under 
discussion.  The  book  also  contains  much  valuable  information  for  the  central  station  engi- 
neer. 438  pages.  300  engravings.  Bound  in  leather  pocket  book  form.  Price  .  $3.00 

ELECTRIC  TOY  MAKING,  DYNAMO  BUILDING,  AND  ELECTRIC  MOTOR  CONSTRUC- 
TION.    By  Prof.  T.O 'CONOR  SLOANE. 

This  work  treats  of  the  making  at  home  of  electrical  toys,  electrical  apparatus,  motors,  dynamos 
and  instruments  in  general,  and  is  designed  to  bring  within  the  reach  of  young  and  old  the 
manufacture  of  genuine  and  useful  electrical  appliances.  The  work  is  especially  designed  for 
amateurs  and  young  folks. 

Thousands  of  our  young  people  are  daily  experimenting,  and  busily  engaged  in  making  electrical 
toys  and  apparatus  of  various  kinds.  The  present  work  is  just  what  is  wanted  to  give  the 
much  needed  information  in  a  plain,  practical  manner,  with  illustrations  to  make  easy  the 
carrying  out  of  the  work.  Price $1.0O 

ELECTRIC  WIRING,  DIAGRAMS  AND  SWITCHBOARDS.     By  NEWTON  HARRISON. 

This  is  the  only  complete  work  issued  showing  and  telling  you  what  you  should  know  about 
direct  and  alternating  current  wiring.  It  is  a  ready  reference.  The  work  is  free  from  advanced 
technicalities  and  mathematics,  arithmetic  being  used  throughout.  It  is  in  every  respect  a 
handy,  well-written,  instructive,  comprehensive  volume  on  wiring  for  the  wireman,  foreman, 
contractor  or  electrician.  272  pages;  105  illustrations.  Price $1.50 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 


ELECTRICIAN'S  HANDY  BOOK.     By  Prof.  T.  O'CoNOR  SLOANE. 

This  work  of  768  pages  is  intended  for  the  practical  electrician  who  has  to  make  things  go. 
The  entire  field  of  electricity  is  covered  within  its  pages.  Among  some  of  the  subjects  treated 
are:  The  Theory  of  the  Electric  Current  and  Circuit,  Electro-Chemistry,  Primary  Batteries, 
Storage  Batteries,  Generation  and  Utilization  of  Electric  Powers,  Alternating  Current,  Arma- 
ture Winding,  Dynamos  and  Motors,  Motor  Generators,  Operation  of  the  Central  Station 
Switchboards,  Safety  Appliances,  Distribution  of  Electric  Light  and  Power,  Street  Mains, 
Transformers,  Arc  and  Incandescent  Lighting,  Electric  Measurements,  Photometry,  Electric 
Railways,  Telephony,  Bell-Wiring,  Electro-Plating,  Electric  Heating,  Wireless  Telegraphy,  etc. 
It  contains  no  useless  theory;  everything  is  to  the  point.  It  teaches  you  just  what  you  want 
to  know  about  electricity.  It  is  the  standard  work  published  on  the  subject.  Forty-one 
chapters,  610  engravings,  handsomely  bound  in  red  leather  with  title  and  edges  in  gold.  Price- 

$3.50 

ELECTRICITY  IN  FACTORIES  AND  WORKSHOPS,  ITS  COST  AND  CONVENIENCE. 
By  ARTHUR  P.  HASLAM. 

A  practical  book  for  power  producers  and  power  users  showing  what  a  convenience  the  electric 
motor,  in  its  various  forms,  has  become  to  the  modern  manufacturer.  It  also  deals  with  the 
conditions  which  determine  the  cost  of  electric  driving,  and  compares  this  with  other  methods 
of  producing  and  utilizing  power. 

Among  the  chapters  contained  in  the  book  are:  The  Direct  Current  Motor;  The  Alternating 
Current  Motor;  The  Starting  and  Speed  Regulation  of  Electric  Motors;  The  Rating  and 
Efficiency  of  Electric  Motors;  The  Cost  of  Energy  as  Affected  by  Conditions  of  Working,  The 
Question  for  the  Small  Power  User;  Independent  Generating  Plants;  Oil  and  Gas  Engine 
Plants;  Steam  Plants;  Power  Station  Tariff s ;  The  Use  of  Electric  Power  in  Textile  Factories; 
Electric  Power  in  Printing  Works;  The  Use  of  Electric  Power  in  Engineering  Workshops 
Miscellaneous  Application  of  Electric  Power;  The  Installation  of  Electric  Motors;  The  Lighting 
of  Industrial  Establishments.  312  pages.  Very  fully  illustrated.  Price 2.50 

ELECTRICITY  SIMPLIFIED.     By  Prof.  T.  O'CONOR  SLOANE. 

Tke  object  of  "Electricity  Simplified"  is  to'make  the  subject  as  plain  as  possible  and  to  show 
what  the  modern  conception  of  electricity  is;  to  show  how  two  plates  of  different  metals 
immersed  in  acid  can  send  a  message  around  the  globe;  to  explain  how  a  bundle  of  copper  wire 
rotated  by  a  steam  engine  can  be  the  agent  in  lighting  our  streets,  to  tell  what  the  volt,  ohm 
and  ampere  are,  and  what  high  and  low  tension  mean;  and  to  answer  the  questions  that 
perpetually  arise  in  the  mind  in  this  age  of  electricity.  172  pages.  Illustrated.  Price  $1.00 

HOW  TO  BECOME  A  SUCCESSFUL  ELECTRICIAN.     By  Prof.  T.  O'CoNOR  SLOANE. 

Every  young  man  who  wishes  to  become  a  successful  electrician  should  read  this  book.  It  tells 
in  simple  language  the  surest  and  easiest  way  to  become  a  successful  electrician.  The  studies 
to  be  followed,  methods  of  work,  field  of  operation  and  the  requirements  of  the  successful 
electrician  are  pointed  out  and  fully  explained.  Every  young  engineer  will  find  this  an  ex- 
cellent stepping-stone  to  more  advanced  works  on  electricity  which  he  must  master  before 
success  can  be  attained.  Many  young  men  become  discouraged  at  the  very  outstart  by 
attempting  to  read  and  study  books  that  are  far  beyond  their  comprehension.  This  book 
serves  as  tfie  connecting  link  between  the  rudiments  taught  in  the  public  schools  and  the  real 
study  of  electricity.  It  is  interesting  from  cover  to  cover.  Twelfth  edition.  202  pages. 
Illustrated.  Price  „ $1.00 

MANAGEMENT   OF  DYNAMOS.     By  LUMMIS-PATERSON. 

A  handbook  of  theory  and  practice.  This  work  is  arranged  in  three  parts.  The  first  part 
covers  the  elementary  theory  of  the  dynamo.  The  second  part,  the  construction  and  action 
of  the  different  classes  of  dynamos  in  common  use  are  described;  while  the  third  part  relates 
to  such  matters  as  affect  the  practical  management  and  working  of  dynamos  and  motors. 
The  following  chapters  are  contained  in  the  book:  Electrical  Units;  Magnetic  Principles; 
Theory  of  the  Dynamo;  Armature;  Armature  in  Practice;  Field  Magnets;  Field  Magnets  in 
Practice;  Regulating  Dynamos;  Coupling  Dynamos;  Installation,  Running,  and  Maintenance 
of  Dynamos;  Faults  in  Dynamos;  Faults  in  Armatures;  Motors.  292  pages.  117  illustra- 
tions. Price $3.50 

STANDARD  ELECTRICAL  DICTIONARY.     By  T.  O'CoNOR  SLOANE. 

An  indispensable  work  to  all  interested  in  electrical  science.  Suitable  alike  for  the  student 
and  professional.  A  practical  hand-book  of  reference  containing  definitions  of  about  5,000 
distinct  words,  terms  and  phrases.  The  definitions  are  terse  and  concise  and  include  every 
term  used  in  electrical  science.  Recently  issued.  An  entirely  new  edition.  Should  be  in  the 
possession  of  all  who  desire  to  keep  abreast  with  the  progress  of  this  branch  of  science.  Com- 
plete, concise,  and  convenient.  682  pages.  393  illustrations.  Price  .  .  .  .  ,  $3.00 

SWITCHBOARDS.     By  WILLIAM  BAXTER,  JR. 

This  book  appeals  to  every  engineer  and  electrician  who  wants  to  know  the  practical  side  of 
things.  It  takes  up  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  dynamos,  connections  and  circuits  and  shows 
by  diagram  and  illustration  just  how  the  switchboard  should  be  connected.  Includes  direct 
and  alternating  current  boards,  also  those  for  arc  lighting,  incandescent,  and  power  circuits. 
Special  treatment  on  high  voltage  boards  for  power  transmission.  190  pages.  Illustrated. 

Price      .          -     i $1.50 

% 

8 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD.  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

TELEPHONE      CONSTRUCTION,      INSTALLATION,      WIRING,      OPERATION      AND 

MAINTENANCE.     By  W.  H.  RADCLIFFE  and  H.  C.  GUSHING. 

This  book  gives  the  principles  of  construction  and  operation  of  both  the  Bell  and  Independent 
instruments;  approved  methods  of  installing  and  wiring  them;  the  means  of  protecting  them 
from  lightning  and  abnormal  currents;  their  connection  together  for  operation  as  series  or 
bridging  stations;  and  rules  for  their  inspection  and  maintenance.  Line  wiring  and  the  wir- 
ing and  operation  of  special  telephone  systems  are  also  treated. 

Intricate  mathematics  are  avoided,  and  all  apparatus,  circuits  and  systems  are  thoroughly 
described.  The  appendix  contains  definitions  of  units  and  terms  used  in  the  text.  Selected 
wiring  tables,  which  are  very  helpful,  are  also  included.  100  pages,  125  illustrations.  $1.00 

WIRING  A  HOUSE.     By  HERBERT  PRATT. 

Shows  a  house  already  built;  tells  just  how  to  start  about  wiring  it;  where  to  begin;  what 
wire  to  use;  how  to  run  it  according  to  Insurance  Rules;  in  fact  just  the  information  you  need. 
Directions  apply  equally  to  a  shop.  Fourth  edition 25  cents 

WIRELESS  TELEPHONES  AND  HOW  THEY  WORK.     By  JAMES  ERSKINE-MURRAY. 

This  work  is  free  from  elaborate  details  and  aims  at  giving  a  clear  survey  of  the  way  in  which 
Wireless  Telephones  work.  It  is  intended  for  amateur  workers  and  for  those  whose  knowledge 
of  electricity  is  slight.  Chapters  contained:  How  We  Hear;  Historical;  The  Conversion  of 
Sound  into  Electric  Waves;  Wireless  Transmission;  The  Production  of  Alternating  Currents 
of  High  Frequency;  How  the  Electric  Waves  are  Radiated  and  Received;  The  Receiving 
Instruments;  Detectors;  Achievements  and  Expectations;  Glossary  of  Technical  Work. 
Cloth.  Price .  : $1.00 

i 

FACTORY  MANAGEMENT,  ETC. 

MORERN  MACHINE  SHOP  CONSTRUCTION,  EQUIPMENT  AND  MANAGEMENT.    By 
O.  E.  PERRIGO,  M.E. 

The  only  work  published  that  describes  the  modern  machine  shop  or  manufacturing  plant  from 
the  time  the  grass  is  growing  on  the  site  intended  for  it  until  the  finished  product  is  shipped. 
By  a  careful  study  of  its  thirty-two  chapters  the  practical  man  may  economically  build, 
efficiently  equip,  and  successfully  manage  the  modern  machine  shop  or  manufacturing  estab- 
lishment. Just  the  book  needed  by  those  contemplating  the  erection  of  modern  shop  buildings, 
the  re-building  and  re-organization  of  old  ones,  or  the  introduction  of  modern  shop  methods, 
time  and  cost  system.  It  is  a  book  written  and  illustrated  by  a  practical  shop  man  for  practical 
shop  men  who  are  too  busy  to  read  theories  and  want  facts.  It  is  the  most  complete  all  around 
book  of  its  kind  ever  published.  It  is  a  practical  book  for  practical  men,  from  the  apprentice 
in  the  shop  to  the  president  in  the  office.  It  minutely  describes  and  illustrates  the  most  simple 
and  yet  the  most  efficient  time  and  cost  system  yet  devised,  Price $5.00 

FUEL 


COMBUSTION  OF  COAL  AND  THE  PREVENTION  OF  SMOKE.  By  WM.  M.  BARR. 

This  book  has  been  prepared  with  special  reference  to  the  generation  of  heat  by  the  combus- 
tion of  the  common  fuels  found  in  the  United  States,  and  deals  particularly  with  the  condi- 
tions necessary  to  the  economic  and  smokeless  combustion  of  bituminous  coals  in  Stationary 
and  Locomotive  Steam  Boilers. 

The  presentation  of  this  important  subject  is  systematic  and  progressive.  The  arrangement 
of  the  bopk  is  in  a  series  of  practical  questions  to  which  are  appended  accurate  answers,  which 
describe  in  language,  free  from  technicalities,  the  several  processes  involved  in  the  furnace 
combustion  of  American  fuels;  it  clearly  states  the  essential  requisites  for  perfect  combustion, 
and  points  out  the  best  methods  of  furnace  construction  for  obtaining  the  greatest  quantity 
of  heat  from  any  given  quality  of  coal.  Nearly  350  pages,  fully  illustrated.  .  .  .  $1.00 

SMOKE   PREVENTION    AND    FUEL   ECONOMY.     By  BOOTH  and  KERSHAW. 

A  complete  treatise  for  all  interested  in  smoke  prevention  and  combustion,  being  based  on 
the  German  work  of  Ernst  Schmatolla,  but  it  is  more  than  a  mere  translation  of  the  German 
treatise,  much  being  added.  The  authors  show  as  briefly  as  possible  the  principles  of  fuel 
combustion,  the  methods  which  have  been  and  are  at  present  in  use,  as  well  as  the  proper 
scientific  methods  fpr  obtaining  all  the  energy  in  the  coal  and  burning  it  without  smolce. 
Considerable  space  is  also  given  to  the  examination  of  the  waste  gases,  and  several  of  the 
representative  English  and  American  mechanical  stoker  and  similar  appliances  are  described. 
The  losses  carried  away  in  the  waste  gases  are  thoroughly  analyzed  and  discussed  in  the  Ap- 
pendix, and  abstracts  axe  also  here  given  of  various  patents  on  combustion  apparatus.  Tije 
book  is  complete  and  contains  much  of  value  to  all  who  have  charge  of  large  plants.  19-\ 
Illustrated.  Price $2.50 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 


GAS  ENGINES  AND  GAS 

CHEMISTRY  OF  GAS  MANUFACTURE.     By  H.  M.  ROYLES. 

This  book  covers  points  likely  to  arise  in  the  ordinary  course  of  the  duties  of  the  engineer  or 
manager  of  a  gas  works  not  large  enough  to  necessitate  the  employment  of  a  separate  chemical 
staff.  It  treats  of  the  testing  of  the  raw  materials  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  illuminat- 
ing coal  gas,  and  of  the  gas  produced  The  preparation  of  standard  solutions  is  given  as  well 
as  the  chemical  and  physical  examination  of  gas  coal  including  among  its  contents — Prepa- 
ratipns  of  Standard  Solutions,  Coal,  Furnaces,  Testing  and  Regulation.  Products  of  Car- 
bonization. Analysis  of  Crude  Coal  Gas.  Analysis  of  Lime.  Ammonia.  Analysis  of  Oxide 
of  Iron.  Naphthalene.  Analysis  of  Fire-Bricks  and  Fire-Clay.  Weldom  and  Spent  Oxide. 
Photometry  and  Gas  Testing.  Carburetted  Water  Gas.  Metropolis  Gas.  Miscellaneous 
Extracts.  Useful  Tables $4.50 

AGRICULTURAL  GAS  ENGINES.     By  XENO  W.  PUTNAM. 

The  gas  engine  within  the  past  few  years  is  being  so  much  used  on  the  farm  to  simplify  work, 
that  the  publication  of  this  practical  treatise  will  prove  of  greatest  value.  The  author  takes 
up  first,  and  treats  in  detail  the  working  of  the  engine,  then  the  transmission  mediums  are 
treated,  as  well  as  traction  engines  and  their  application.  Price $1.50 

GAS  ENGINE  CONSTRUCTION,   OR  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  HALF-HORSE-POWER  GAS 
ENGINE.     By  PARSELL  and  WEED. 

A  practical  treatise  of  300  pages  describing  the  theory  and  principles  of  the  action  of  Gas 
Engines  of  various  types  and  the  design  and  construction  of  a  half -horse  power  Gas  Engine,  with 
illustrations  of  the  work  in  actual  progress,  together  with  the  dimensioned  working  drawings 
giving  clearly  the  sizes  of  the  various  details;  for  the  student,  the  scientific  investigator  and  the 
amateur  mechanic. 

This  book  treats  of  the  subject  more  from  the  standpoint  of  practice  than  that  of  theory.  The 
principles  of  operation  of  Gas  Engines  are  clearly  and  simply  described  and  then  the  actual 
construction  of  a  half-horse  power  engine  is  taken  up,  step  by  step,  showing  in  detail  the  making 
of  the  Gas  Engine.  300  pages.  Price $2.50 

GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL  ENGINES.     By  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox. 

Just  issued,  18th  revised  and  enlarged  edition.  Every  user  of  a  gas  engine  needs  this  book. 
Simple,  instructive,  and  right  up-to-date.  The  only  complete  work  on  the  subject.  Tells 
all  about  the  running  and  management  of  gas,  gasoline  and  oil  engines,  as  designed  and  manu- 
factured in  the  United  States.  Explosive  motors  for  stationary,  marine  and  vehicle  power  are 
fully  treated,  together  with  illustrations  of  their  parts  and  tabulated  sizes,  also  their  care  and 
running  are  included.  Electric  ignition  by  induction  coil  and  jump  spark  are  fully  explained 
and  illustrated,  including  valuable  information  on  the  testing  for  economy  and  power  and  the 
erection  of  power  plants. 

The  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  in  regard  to  the  installation  and 
management  of  gasoline  motors  is  given  in  full,  suggesting  the  safe  installation  of  explosive 
motor  power.  A  list  of  United  States  Patents  issued  on  gas,  gasoline,  and  oil  engines  and  their 
adjuncts  from  1875  to  date  is  included.  484  pages.  410  engravings  Price  .  .  $2. 50  net 

MODERN  GAS  ENGINES  AND  PRODUCER  GAS  PLANTS.     By  R.  E.  MATHOT,  M.E. 

A  guide  for  the  gas  engine  designer,  user,  and  engineer  in  the  construction,  selection,  purchase, 
installation,  operation,  and  maintenance  of  gas  engines.  More  than  one  book  on  gas  engines 
has  been  written,  but  not  one  has  thus  far  even  encroached  on  the  field  covered  by  this  book. 
Above  all  Mr.  Mathot's  work  is  a  practical  guide.  Recognizing  the  need  of  a  volume  that 
would  assist  the  gas  engine  user  in  understanding  thoroughly  the  motor  upon  which  he  depends 
for  power,  the  author  has  discussed  his  subject  without  the  help  of  any  mathematics  and 
without  elaborate  theoretical  explanations.  Every  part  of  the  gas  engine  is  described  in  detail, 
tersely,  clearly,  with  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  requirements  of  the  mechanic.  Helpful 
suggestions  as  to  the  purchase  of  an  engine,  its  installation,  care,  and  operation  form  a  most 
valuable  feature  of  the  work.  320  pages.  175  detailed  illustrations.  Price  .  ,  .  $2.50 


GEARING  AND   GAMS 


BEVEL  GEAR  TABLES.     By  D.  AG.  ENGSTROM. 

A  book  that  will  at  once  commend  itself  to  mechanics  and  draftsmen.  Does  away  with  all 
the  trigonometry  and  fancy  figuring  on  bevel  gears  and  makes  it  easy  for  anyone  to  lay  them 
out  or  make  them  just  right.  There  are  36  full-page  tables  that  show  every  necessary  dimen- 
sion for  all  sizes  or  combinations  you're  apt  to  need.  No  puzzling  figuring  or  guessing. 
Gives  placing  distance,  all  the  angles  (including  cutting  angles),  and  the  correct  cutter  to  use. 
A  copy  of  this  prepares  ;you  for  anything  in  the  beyel  gear  line.  66  pages.  .  $1.00 

10 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD.  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

CHANGE  GEAR  DEVICES.     By  OSCAR  E.  PERRIGO. 

A  practical  book  for  every  designer,  draftsman,  and  mechanic  interested  in  the  invention  and 
development  of  the  devices  for  feed  changes  on  the  different  machines  requiring  such  mechan- 
ism. All  the  necessary  information  on  this  subject  is  taken  up,  analyzed,  classified,  sifted, 
and  concentrated  for  the  use  of  busy  men  who  have  not  the  time  to  go  through  the  masses 
of  irrelevant  matter  with  which  such  a  subject  is  usually  encumbered  and  select  such  infor- 
mation as  will  be  useful  to  them. 

It  shows  just  what  has  been  done,  how  it  has  been  done,  when  it  was  done,  and  who  did  it.i 
It  saves  time  in  hunting  up  patent  records  and  re-inventing  old  ideas.     88  pages.     $1.00 

DRAFTING  OF  CAMS.     By  Louis  ROUILLION. 

>us  problem  un 
ally  any  kind  o: 

HYDRAULICS 


The  laying  out  of  cams  is  a  serious  problem  unless  you  know  how  to  go  at  it  right.     This  puts 
you  on  the  right  road  for  practically  any  kind  of  cam  you  are  likely  to  run  up  against.  25  cents 


HYDRAULIC  ENGINEERING.     By  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox. 

A  treatise  on  the  properties,  power,  and  resources  of  water  for  all  purposes.  Including  the 
measurement  of  streams;  the  flow  of  water  in  pipes  or  conduits;  the  horse-power  of  falling 
water;  turbine  and  impact  water-wheels;  wave-motors,  centrifugal,  reciprocating,  and  air- 
lift pumps.  With  300  figures  and  diagrams  and  36  practical  tables. 

All  who  are  interested  in  water-works  development  will  find  this  book  a  useful  one,  because 
it  is  an  entirely  practical  treatise  upon  a  subject  of  present  importance,  and  cannot  fail  in 
having  a  far-reaching  influence,  and  for  this  reason  should  have  a  place  in  the  working  library 
of  every  engineer.  320  pages.  Price $4.00 

ICE   AND    REFRIGERATION    , 

POCKET  BOOK  OF  REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE  MAKING.    By  A.  J.  WALLIS-TAYLOR. 

This  is  one  of  the  latest  and  most  comprehensive  reference  books  published  on  the  subject  of 
refrigeration  and  cold  storage.  It  explains  the  properties  and  refrigerating  effect  of  the  different 
fluids  in  use,  the  management  of  refrigerating  machinery  and  the  construction  and  insulation 
of  cold  rooms  with  their  required  pipe  surface  for  different  degrees  of  cold;  freezing  mixtures 
and  non-freezing  brines,  temperatures  of  cold  rooms  for  all  kinds  of  provisions,  cold  storage 
charges  for  all  classes  of  goods,  ice  making  and  storage  of  ice,  data  and  memoranda  for  constant 
reference  by  refrigerating  engineers,  with  nearly  one  hundred  tables  containing  valuable 
references  to  every  fact  and  condition  required  in  the  installment  and  operation  of  a  refrfeerat- 
ing  plant.  Price $1.50 

INVENTIONS— PATENTS     , 

INVENTOR'S  MANUAL,  HOW  TO  MAKE  A  PATENT  PAY. 

This  is  a  book  designed  as  a  guide  to  inventors  in  perfecting  their  inventions,  taking  out  their 
patents  and  disposing  of  them.  It  is  not  in  any  sense  a  Patent  Solicitor's  Circular,  nor  a 
Patent  Broker's  Advertisement.  No  advertisements  of  any  description  appear  in  the  work. 
It  is  a  book  containing  a  quarter  of  a  century's  experience  of  a  successful  inventor,  together 
with  notes  based  upon  the  experience  of  many  other  inventors.  Price  .....  $1.00 

LATHE  WORK 

MODERN  AMERICAN  LATHE  PRACTICE.    By  OSCAR  E.  PERRIGO. 

This  is  a  new  book  from  cover  to  cover,  and  the  only  complete  American  work  on  the  subject 
written  by  a  man  who  knows  not  only  how  work  ought  to  be  done  but  who  also  knows  how  to 
do  it,  and  how  to  convey  this  knowledge  to  others.  It  is  strictly  up-to-date  in  its  descriptions 
and  illustrations,  which  represent  the  very  latest  practice  in  lathe  and  boring  mill  operations 
as  well  as  the  construction  of  and  latest  developments  in  the  manufacture  of  these  important 
classes  of  machine  tools.  424  pages.  314  illustrations.  Price $2.50 

PRACTICAL  METAL  TURNING.    By  JOSEPH  G.  HORNER. 

This  important  and  practical  subject  is  treated  in  a  full  and  exhaustive  manner  and  nothing 
of  importance  is  omitted.  The  principles  and  practice  and  all  the  different  branches  of  Turn- 
ing are  considered  and  well  illustrated.  All  the  different  kinds  of  Chucks  of  usual  forms,  as 
well  as  some  unusual  kinds,  are  shown.  A  feature  of  the  book  is  the  important  section  de- 
voted to  modern  Turret  practice;  Boring  is  another  subject  which  is  treated  fully;  and  the 
chapter  on  Tool  Holders  illustrates  a  large  number  of  representative  types.  Thread  Cutting 
is  treated  at  reasonable  length;  and  the  last  chapter  contains  a  good  deal  of  information 
relating  to  the  High-Speed  Steels  and  their  work.  The  numerous  tools  used  by  machinists 
are  illustrated,  and  also  the  adjuncts  of  the  lathe.  In  fact,  the  entire  subject  is  treated  in 
such  a  thorough  manner  as  to  make  this  book  the  standard  one  on  the  subject.  It  is  indis- 
pensable to  the  manager,  engineer,  and  machinist  as  well  as  to  the  student,  amateur,  and 
experimental  man  who  desires  to  keep  up-to-date  400  pages,  fully  illustrated.  Price  $3.5O 

II 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD.  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

TURNING  AND  BORING  TAPERS.     By  FRED  H.  COLVIN. 

There  are  two  ways  to  turn  tapers;  the  right  way  and  one  other.  This  treatise  has  to  do  with 
the  right  way;  it  tells  you  how  to  start  the  work  properly,  how  to  set  the  lathe,  what  tools  to 
use  and  how  to  use  them,  and  forty  and  one  other  little  things  that  you  should  know.  Fourth 
edition. 25  cents 


LIQUID  AIR 

LIQUID   AIR   AND   THE   LIQUEFACTION   OF   GASES.     By  T.  O'CoNOR  SLOANE. 

This  book  gives  the  history  of  the  theory,  discovery,  and  manufacture  of  Liquid  Air,  and 

contains  an  illustrated  description  of  all  the  experiments  that  have  excited  the  wonder  of 

audiences  all  over  the  country.     It  shows  how  liquid  air,  like  water,  is  carried  hundreds  of 

miles  and  is  handled  in  open  buckets.     It  tells  what  may  be  expected  from  it  in  the  near 

future. 

A  book  that  renders  simple  one  of  the  most  perplexing  chemical  problems  of  the  century. 

Startling  developments  illustrated  by  actual  experiments. 

It  is  not  only  a  work  of  scientific  interest  and  authority,  but  is  intended  for  the  general  reader, 

being  written  in  a  popular  style — easily  understood  by  every  one.     Second  edition.     365 

pages.    Price ,     $2.00 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEERING 

AIR-BRAKE   CATECHISM.     By  ROBERT  H.  BLACKALL. 

This  book  is  a  standard  text  book.  It  covers  the  Westinghouse  Air-Brake  Equipment,  in- 
cluding the  No.  5  and  the  No.  6  E.  T  Locomotive  Brake  Equipment;  the  K  (Quick-Service) 
Triple  Valve  for  Freight  Service;  and  the  Cross-Compound  Pump.  The  operation  of  all  parts 
of  the  apparatus  is  explained  in  detail,  and  a  practical  way  of  rinding  their  peculiarities  and 
defects,  with  a  proper  remedy,  is  given.  It  contains  2,000  questions  with  their  answers, 
which  will  enable  any  railroad  man  to  pass  any  examination  on  the  subject  of  Air  Brakes. 
Endorsed  and  used  by  air-brake  instructors  and  examiners  on  nearly  every  railroad  in  the 
United  States.  23d  Edition.  380  pages,  fully  illustrated  with  folding  plates  and  dia- 
grams  :.  ". $s.oo 

AMERICAN    COMPOUND    LOCOMOTIVES.     By  FRED.  H.  COLVIN. 

The  only  book  on  compounds  for  the  engineman  or  shopman  that  shows  in  a  plain,  practical 
way  the  various  features  of  compound  locomotives  in  use.  Shows  how  they  are  made,  what 
to  do  when  they  break  down  or  balk.  Contains  sections  as  follows: — A  Bit  of  History.  The- 
ory of  Compounding  Steam  Cylinders.  Baldwin  Two-Cylinder  Compound.  Pittsburg  Two- 
Cylinder  Compound.  Rhode  Island  Compound.  Richmond  Compound.  Rogers  Compound. 
Schenectady  Two-Cylinder  Compound.  Vauclain  Compound.  Tandem  Compounds.  Bald- 
win Tandem.  The  Colvin-Wightman  Tandem.  Schenectady  Tandem.  Balanced  Loco- 
motives. Baldwin  Balanced  Compound.  Plans  for  Balancing.  Locating  Blows.  Break- 
downs. Reducing  Valves.  Drifting.  Valve  Motion.  Disconnecting.  Power  of  Compound 
Locomotives.  Practical  Notes. 

Fully  illustrated  and  containing  ten  special  "Duotone"  inserts  on  heavy  Plate  Paper,  show- 
ing different  types  of  Compounds.  142  pages.  Price $1.00 

APPLICATION     OF     HIGHLY     SUPERHEATED     STEAM     TO     LOCOMOTIVES.     By 
ROBERT  GARBE. 

A  practical  book.  Contains  special  chapters  on  Generation  of  Highly  Superheated  Steam; 
Superheated  Steam  and  the  Two-Cylinder  Simple  Engine;  Compounding  and  Superheating; 
Designs  of  Locomotive  Superheaters;  Constructive  Details  of  Locomotives  using  Highly 
Superheated  Steam;  Experimental  and  Working  Results.  Illustrated  with  folding  plates 
and  tables.  Price $2.50 

COMBUSTION   OF   COAL   AND   THE  PREVENTION   OF  SMOKE.     By  WM.  M.  BARR. 

This  book  has  been  prepared  with  special  reference  to  the  generation  of  heat  by  the  combus- 
tion of  the  common  fuels  found  in  the  United  States,  and  deals  particularly  with  the  condi- 
tions necessary  to  the  economic  and  smokeless  combustion  of  bituminous  coals  in  Stationary 
and  Locomotive  Steam  Boilers. 

The  presentation  of  this  important  subject  is  systematic  and  progressive.  The  arrangement 
of  the  book  is  in  a  series  of  practical  questions  to  which  are  appended  accurate  answers,  which 
describe  in  language,  free  from  technicalities,  the  several  processes  involved  in  the  furnace 
combustion  of  American  fuels;  it  clearly  states  the  essential  requisites  for  perfect  combustion, 
and  points  out  the  best  methods  of  furnace  construction  for  obtaining  the  greatest  quantity 
of  hep.t  fron- Any  given  quality  of  coal.  Nearly  350  pages,  fully  illustrated.  .  .  .  $1.00 

12 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 


LINK  MOTIONS,  VALVES  AND  VALVE  SETTING.  By  FRED  H.  COLVIN,  Associate 
Editor  of  "American  Machinist." 

A  handy  book  for  the  engineer  or  machinist  that  clears  up  the  mysteries  of  valve  setting. 
Shows  the  different  valve  gears  in  use,  how  they  work,  and  why.  Piston  and  slide  valves 
of  different  types  are  illustrated  and  explained.  A  book  that  every  railroad  man  in  the  mo- 
tive power  department  ought  to  have.  Contains  chapters  on  Locomotive  Link  Motion, 
Valve  Movements,  Setting  Slide  Valves,  Analysis  by  Diagrams,  Modern  Practice,  Slip  of 
Block,  Slide  Valves,  Piston  Valves,  Setting  Piston  Valves,  Joy-Allen  Valve  Gear,  Walschaert 
Valve  Gear,  Gooch  Valve  Gear,  Alfree-Hubbell  Valve  Gear,  etc.,  etc.  Fully  illustrated. 
Price 50  cents 

LOCOMOTIVE  BOILER  CONSTRUCTION.     By  FRANK  A.  KLEINHANS. 

The  construction  of  boilers  in  general  are  treated,  and  following  this,  the  locomotive  boiler 
is  taken  up  in  the  order  in  which  its  various  parts  go  through  the  sh9p.  Shows  all  types  of 
boilers  used;  gives  details  of  construction;  practical  facts,  such  as  life  of  riveting,  punches 
and  dies;  work  done  per  day,  allowance  for  bending  and  flanging  sheets,  and  other  data. 
Locomotive  boilers  present  more  difficulty  in  laying  out  and  building  than  any  other  type, 
and  for  this  reason  the  author  uses  them  as  examples.  Anyone  who  can  handle  them  can 
tackle  anything. 

Contains  chapters  on  Laying  Out  Work;  Flanging  and  Forging;  Punching;  Shearing;  Plate 
Planing;  General  Tables;  Finishing  Parts;  Bending;  Machinery  Parts;  Riveting;  Boiler 
Details;  Smoke  Box  Details;  Assembling  and  Calking;  Boiler  Shop  Machinery,  etc.,  etc. 
There  isn't  a  man  who  has  anything  to  do  with  boiler  work,  either  new  or  repair  work,  who 
doesn't  need  this  book.  The  manufacturer,  superintendent,  foreman,  and  boiler  worker — 
all  need  it.  No  matter  what  the  type  of  boiler,  you'll  find  a  mint  of  information  that  you 
wouldn't  be  without.  Over  400  pages,  five  large  folding  plates.  Price $3.00 

LOCOMOTIVE  BREAKDOWNS  AND  THEIR  REMEDIES.  By  GEO.  L.  FOWLER. 
Revised  by  WM.  W.  WOOD,  Air-Brake  Instructor.  Just  issued.  Revised  pocket 
edition. 

It  is  out  of  the  question  to  try  and  tell  you  about  every  subject  that  is  covered  in  this  pocket 
edition  of  Locomotive  Breakdowns.  Just  imagine  all  the  common  troubles  that  an  engineer 
may  expect  to  happen  some  time,  and  then  add  all  of  the  unexpected  ones,  troubles  that  could 
occur,  but  that  you  had  never  thought  about,  and  you  will  find  that  they  are  all  treated  with 
the  very  best  methods  of  repair.  Walschaert  Locomotive  Valve  Gear  Troubles,  Electric 
Headlight  Troubles,  as  well  as  Questions  and  Answers  on  the  Air  Brake  are  all  included.  294 
pages.  Fully  illustrated.  ; „ .  .  .  $1.00 

LOCOMOTIVE  CATECHISM.     By  ROBERT  GRIMSHAW. 

The  revised  edition  of  "Locomotive  Catechism,"  toy  Robert  Grimshaw,  is  a  New  Book  from 
Cover  to  Cover.  It  contains  twice  as  many  pages  and  double  the  number  of  illustrations 
of  previous  editipns.  Includes  the  greatest  amount  of  practical  information  ever  published 
on  the  construction  and  management  of  modern  locomotives.  Specially  Prepared  Chapters 
on  the  Walschaert  Locomotive  Valve  Gear,  the  Air  Brake  Equipment  and  the  Electric  Head 
Light  are  given. 

It  commends  itself  at  once  to  every  Engineer  and  Fireman,  and  to  all  who  are  going  in  for 
examination  or  promotion.  In  plain  language,  with  full  complete  answers,  not  only  all  the 
questions  asked  by  the  examining  engineer  are  given,  but  those  which  the  young  and  less 
experienced  would  ask  the  veteran,  and  which  old  hands  ask  as  "stickers."  It  is  a  veritable 
Encyclopedia  of  the  Locomotive,  is  entirely  free  from  mathematics,  easily  understood  and 
thoroughly  up-to-date.  Contains  over  4,000  Examination  Questions  with  their  Answers. 
825  pages,  437  illustrations  and  three  folding  plates $8.50 

NEW  YORK  AIR-BRAKE  CATECHISM.     By  ROBERT  H.  BLACKALL. 

This  is  a  complete  treatise  on  the  New  York  Air-Brake  and  Air-Signalling  Apparatus,  giving 
a  detailed  description  of  all  the  parts,  their  operation,  troubles,  and  the  methods  of  locating 
and  remedying  the  same.  200  pages,  fully  illustrated $1.00 

JPOCKET  RAILROAD  DICTIONARY  AND  VADE  MECUM.  By  FRED  H.  COLVIN, 
Associate  Editor  "American  Machinist. 

The  Railroad  Pocket  Book  is  of  value  to  every  man  on  the  road,  as  it  contains  valuable  Rail- 
road Data,  Master  Car  Builders'  Standards,  Tests,  Proportions  of  Locomotives  and  Boilers 
and  various  other  Rules  and  Tables. 

As  a  record  of  recent  practice  in  all  sections  of  railway  work  it  stands  alone,  giving  facts  and 
figures  from  actual  experience  on  such  matters  as  Acetylene  Lighting,  Air  Brakes,  Axles, 
Bearings,  Boilers,  Cars,  Costs  of  repairs  and  other  items,  Counterbalancing,  Curves,  Driving 
Wheels,  Equalizers,  Flues,  Grades,  Grates,  Heating  surfaces,  Injectors,  Locomotives,  Main- 
tenance of  way,  Oils,  Power  of  Locomotives,  Rails,  Rods,  Shops,  Speed,  Tires,  Turntables, 
Valve  Motions,  Water,  etc.,  etc.  Second  Edition.  Price $1.00 

13 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

TRAIN  RULES   AND   DESPATCHING.     By  H.  A.  DALBY. 

Every  railroad  man,  no  matter  what  department  he's  in,  needs  a  copy  of  this  book.  It  gives 
the  standard  rules  for  both  single  and  double  track,  shows  all  the  signals,  with  colors  wher- 
ever necessary,  and  has  a  list  of  towns  where  time  changes,  with  a  map  showing  the  whole 
country.  The  rules  are  explained  wherever  there  is  any  doubt  about  their  meaning  or  where 
they  are  modified  by  different  railroads.  It's  the  only  practical  book  on  train  rules  in  print. 
Over  220  pages.  Leather  cover.  Price $1.50 

WALSCHAERT   LOCOMOTIVE   VALVE   GEAR.     By  WM.  W.  WOOD. 

If  you  would  thoroughly  understand  the  Walschaert  Valve  Gear  you  should  possess  a  copy 
of  this  book,  as  the  author  takes  the  plainest  form  of  a  steam  engine — a  stationary  engine  in 
the  rough,  that  will  only  turn  its  crank  in  one  direction — and  from  it  builds  up — with  the 
reader's  help — a  modern  locomotive  equipped  with  the  Walschaert  Valve  Gear,  complete. 
The  points  discussed  are  clearly  illustrated:  two  large  folding  plates  that  show  the  positions 
of  the  valves  of  both  inside  or  outside  admission  type,  as  well  as  the  links  and  9ther  parts  of 
the  gear  when  the  crank  is  at  nine  different  points  in  its  revolution,  are  especially  valuable 
in  making  the  movement  clear.  These  employ  sliding  cardboard  models  which  are  contained 
Vi  a  pocket  in  the  coyer. 

The  book  is  divided  into  four  general  divisions,  as  follows:  I.  Analysis  of  the  gear.  II.  De- 
signing and  erecting  the  gear.  III.  Advantages  of  the  gear.  IV.  Questions  and  answers 
relating  to  the  Walschaert  Valve  Gear. 

This  last  division  contains  sixty  pertinent  questions  with  full  answers  on  all  the  features  of 
this  type  of  valve  gear,  whicfr  will  be  especially  valuable  to  firemen  and  engineers  in  prepar- 
ing for  an  examination  for  promotion.  Nearly  200  pages.  Price  $1.50 

WESTINGHOUSE    E— T    AIR-BRAKE    INSTRUCTION     POCKET    CATECHISM.     By 
WM.  W.  WOOD,  Air-Brake  Instructor. 

Here  is  a  book  for  the  railroad  man,  and  the  man  who  aims  to  be  one.  It  is  without  doubt 
the  only  complete  work  published  on  the  Westinghouse  E-T  Locomotive  Brake  Equipment. 
Written  by  an  Air  Brake  Instructor  who  knows  just  what  is  needed.  It  covers  the  subject 
thoroughly.  Everything  about  -the  New  Westinghouse  Engine  and  Tender  Brake  Equip- 
ment, including  the  Standard  No.  5  and  the  Perfected  No.  6  Style  of  brake,  is  treated  in  de- 
tail. Written  in  plain  English  and  profusely  illustrated  with  Colored  Plates,  which  enable 
one  to  trace  the  flow  of  pressures  throughout  the  entire  equipment.  The  best  book  ever 
published  on  the  Air  Brake.  Equally  good  for  the  beginner  and  the  advanced  engineer. 
Will  pass  any  one  through  any  examination.  It  informs  and  enlightens  you  on  every  point. 
Indispensable  to  every  engineman  and  trainman. 

Contains  examination  questions  and  answers  on  the  E-T  equipment.  Covering  what  the 
E-T  Brake  is.  How  it  should  be  operated.  What  to  do  when  defective.  Not  a  questipn  can 
be  asked  of  the  engineman  up  for  promotion  on  either  the  No.  5  or  the  No.  6  E-T  equipment 
that  is  not  asked  and  answered  in  the  book.  If  you  want  to  thoroughly  understand  the  E-T 
equipment  get  a  copy  of  this  book.  It  covers  every  detail.  Makes  Air  Brake  troubles  and 
examinations  easy.  Price $1.50 

MACHINE  SHOP  PRACTICE 

AMERICAN  TOOL  MAKING  AND  INTERCHANGEABLE  MANUFACTURING.     By  J.  V. 

WOODWORTH. 

A  "shoppy"  book,  containing  no  theorizing,  no  problematical  or  experimental  devices,  there 
are  no  badly  proportioned  and  impossible  diagrams,  no  catalogue  cuts,  but  a  valuable  collection 
of  drawings  and  descriptions  of  devices,  the  rich  fruits  of  the  author's  own  experience.  In  its 
500-odd  pages  the  one  subject  only,  Tool  Making,  and  whatever  relates  thereto,  is  dealt  with. 
The  work  stands  without  a  rival.  It  is  a  complete  practical  treatise  on  the  art  of  American 
Tool  Making  and  system  of  interchangeable  manufacturing  as  carried  on  to-day  in  the  United 
States.  In  it  are  described  and  illustrated  all  of  the  different  types  and  classes  of  small  tools, 
fixtures,  devices,  and  special  appliances  which  are  in  general  use  in  all  machine  manufacturing 
and  metal  working  establishments  where  economy,  capacity  and  interchangeability  in  the 
production  of  machined  metal  parts  are  imperative.  .The  science  of  jig  making  is  exhaustively 
discussed,  and  particular  attention  is  paid  to  drill  jigs,  boring,  profiling  and  milling  fixtures 
and  other  devices  in  which  the  parts  to  be  machined  are  located  and  fastened  within  the 
contrivances.  All  of  the  tools,  fixtures,  and  devices  illustrated  and  described  have  been  or 
are  used  for  the  actual  production  of  work,  such  as  parts  of  drill  presses,  lathes,  patented 
machinery,  typewriters,  electrical  apparatus,  mechanical  appliances,  brass  goods,  composition 
parts,  mould  products,  sheet  metal  asticles,  drop  forgings',  jewelry,  watches ,  medals,  coins, 
etc.  531  pages.  Price $4.00 

HENLEY'S  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  ENGINEERING  AND  ALLIED  TRADES. 
Edited  by  JOSEPH  G.  HORNER,  A.  M.  I.,  M.  E. 

This  set  of  five  volumes  contains  about  2,500  pages  with  thousands  of  illustrations,  including 
diagrammatic  and  sectional  drawings  with  full  explanatory  details.  This  work  covers  the 
erfure  practice  of  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineering.  The  best  known  experts  in  all  branches 
of  engineering  have  contributed  to  these  volumes.  The  Cyclopedia  is  admirably  well  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  the  beginner  and  the  self-taught  practical  man,  as  well  as  the  mechanical  en- 
gineer, designer,  draftsman,  shop  superintendent,  foreman,  and  machinist.  The  work  will  be 
found  a  means  of  advancement  to  any  progressive  man.  It  is  encyclopedic  in  scope,  thorough 
and  practical  in  its  treatment  of  technical  subjects,  simple  and  clear  in  its  descriptive  matter, 

14 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD.  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

and  without  unnecessary  technicalities  or  formulae.  The  articles  are  as  brief  as  may  be  and 
yet  give  a  reasonably  clear  and  explicit  statement  of  the  subject,  and  are  written  by  men  who 
have  had  ample  practicalvexperience  in  the  matters  of  which  they  write.  It  tells  you  all  you 
want  to  know  about  engineering  and  tells  it  so  simply,  so  clearly,  so  concisely,  that  one  cannot 
help  but  understand.  As  a  work  of  reference  it  is  without  a  peer.  $6.00  per  single  volume. 
For  complete  set  of  five  volumes.  Price $25.00 

MACHINE  SHOP  ARITHMETIC.     By  COLVIN-CHENEY. 

This  is  an  arithmetic  of  the  things  you  have  to  do  with  daily.  It  tells  you  plainly  about:  how 
to  find  areas  of  figures;  how  to  find  surface  or  volume  of  balls  or  spheres;  handy  ways  for 
calculating;  about  compound  gearing;  cutting  screw  threads  on  any  lathe;  drilling  for  taps; 
speeds  of  drills,  taps,  emery  wheels,  grindstones,  milling  cutters,  etc.;  all  about  the  Metric 
•  system  with  conversion  tables;  properties  of  metals;  strength  of  bolts  and  nuts;  decimal 
equivalent  of  an  inch.  All  sorts  of  machine  shop  figuring  and  1,001  other  things,  any  one  of 
which  ought  to  be  worth  more  than  the  price  of  this  book  to  you,  and  it  saves  you  the  trouble 
of  bothering  the  boss.  131  pages.  Price 50  cents 

MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS,  POWERS,  AND  DEVICES.     By  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox. 

This  is  a  collection  of  1,890  engravings  of  different  mechanical  motions  and  appliances,  accom- 
panied by  appropriate  text,  making  it  a  book  of  great  value  to  the  inventor,  the  draftsman, 
and  to  all  readers  with  mechanical  tastes.  The  book  is  divided  into  eighteen  sections  or 
chapters  in  which  the  subject  matter  is  classified  under  the  following  heads:  Mechanical  Powers ; 
Transmission  of  Power;  Measurement  of  Power,  Steam  Power;  Air  Power  Appliances ;  Electric 
Power  and  Construction,  Navigation  and  Roads;  Gearing;  Motion  and  Devices;  Controlling 
Motion;  Horological;  Mining;  Mill  and  Factory  Appliances;  Construction  and  Devices; 
Drafting  Devices ;  Miscellaneous  Devices,  etc.  llth  edition.  400  octavo  pages.  Price  $2.50 

MECHANICAL  APPLIANCES,  MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS  AND  NOVELTIES  OF  CON- 
STRUCTION.    By  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox. 

This  is  a  supplementary  volume  to  the  oi?e  upon  mechanical  movements.  Unlike  the  first 
volume,  which  is  more  elementary  in  character,  this  volume  contains  illustrations  and  descrip- 
tions of  many  combinations  of  motions  and  of  mechanical  devices  and  appliances  found  in 
different  lines  of  machinery.  Each  device  being  shown  by  a  line  drawing  with  a  description 
showing  its  working  parts  and  the  method  of  operation.  From  the  multitude  of  devices  de- 
scribed, and  illustrated,  might  be  mentioned,  in  passing,  such  items  as  conveyors  and  elevators, 
Prony  brakes,  thermometers,  various  types  of  boilers,  solar  engines,  oil-fuel  burners,  condensers, 
evaporators,  Corliss  and  other  value  gears,  governors,  gas  engines,  water  motors  of  various 
descriptions,  air  ships,  motors  and  dynamos,  automobile  and  motor  bicycles,  railway  block 
signals,  car  coupes,  link  and  gear  motions,  ball  bearings,  breech  block  mechanism  for  heavy 
guns,  and  a  large  accumulation  of  others  of  equal  importance.  1,000  specially  made  engrav- 
ings. 396  octavo  pages.  Price $2.50 

MODERN  MACHINE  SHOP  CONSTRUCTION,  EQUIPMENT  AND  MANAGEMENT.     By 
OSCAR  E.  PERRIGO. 

The  only  work  published  that  describes  the  Modern  Machine  Shop  or  Manufacturing  Plant  from 
the  time  the  grass  is  growing  on  the  site  intended  for  it  until  the  finished  product  is  shipped 
Just  the  book  needed  by  those  contemplating  the  erection  of  modern  shop  buildings,  the  re- 
building and  reorganization  of  old  ones,  or  the  introduction  of  Modern  Shop  Methods,  time  and 
cost  systems.  It  is  a  book  written  and  illustrated  by  a  practical  shop  man  for  practical  shop 
men  who  are  too  busy  to  read  theories  and  want  facts.  It  is  the  most  complete  all-around 
book  of  its  kind  ever  published.  400  large  quarto  pages.  225  original  and  specially-made 
illustrations.  Price $5.00 

MACHINE    SHOP    TOOLS    AND    SHOP    PRACTICE.     By  W.  H.  VANDERVOORT. 

A  work  of  555  pages^and  673  illustrations,  describing  in  every  detail  the  construction,  operation, 
and  manipulation  of  both  hand  and  machine  topis.  Includes  chapters  on  filing,  fitting,  and 
scraping  surfaces ;  on  drills,  reamers,  taps,  and  dies;  the  lathe  and  its  tools;  planers,  shapers, 
and  their  tools;  milling  machines  and  cutters ;  gear  cutters  and  gear  cutting;  drilling  machines 
and  drill  work;  grinding  machines  and  their  work;  hardening  and  tempering;  gearing,  belting 
and  transmission  machinery;  useful  data  and  tables.  5th  edition.  Price  ....  $3.00 

THE   MODERN   MACHINIST.     By  JOHN  T.  USHER. 

This  is  a  book  showing,  by  plain  description  and1  by  profuse  engravings,  made  expressly  for 
the  work,  all  that  is  best,  most  advanced,  and  of  the  highest  efficiency  in  modern  machine 
shop  practice,  tools,  and  implements,  showing  the  way  by  which  and  through  which,  as  Mr. 
Maxim  says,  "American  machinists  have  become  and  are  the  finest  mechanics  in  the  world." 
Indicating  as  it  does,  in  every  line,  the  familiarity  of  the  author  with  every  detail  of  daily 
experience  in  the  shop,  it  cannot  fail  to  be  of  service  to  any  man  practically  connected  with 
the  shaping  or  finishing  of  metals. 

There  is  nothing  experimental  or  visionary  about  the  book,  all  devices  being  in  actual  use 
and  giving  good  results.  It  might  be  called  a  compendium  of  shop  methods,  shewing  a  vari- 
ety of  special  tools  and  appliances  which  will  give  new  ideas  to  many  mechanics,  from  the 
superintendent  down  to  the  man  at  the  bench.  It  will  be  found  a  valuable  addition  to  any 
machinist's  library,  and  should  be  consulted  whenever  a  new  or  difficult  job  is  to  be  done, 
whether  it  is  boring,  milling,  turning,  or  planing,  as  they  are  all  treated  in  a  practical  manner. 
Fifth  Edition.  320  pages.  250  illustrations.  Price $2.50 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

MODERN    MILLING    MACHINES:     THEIR  DESIGN,    CONSTRUCTION    AND    OPERA- 
TION.    By  JOSEPH  G.  HORNER. 

This  book  describes  and  villustrates  the  Milling  Machine  and  its  work  in  such  a  plain,  clear, 
and  forceful  manner,  and  illustrates  the  subject  so  clearly  and  completely,  that  the  up-to-date 
machinist,  student,  or  mechanical  engineer  cannot  afford  to  do  without  the  valuable  infor- 
mation which  it  contains.  It  describes  not  only  the  early  machines  of  this  class,  but  notes 
their  gradual  development  into  the  splendid  machines  of  the  present  day,  giving  the  design 
and  construction  of  the  various  types,  forms,  and  special  features  produced  by  prominent 
manufacturers,  American  and  foreign. 

Milling  cutters  in  all  their  development  and  modernized  forms  are  illustrated  and  described, 
and  the  operations  they  are  capable  of  producing  upon  different  classes  of  work  are  carefully 
described  in  detail,  and  the  speeds  and  feeds  necessary  are  discussed,  and  valuable  and  useful 
data  given  for  determining  these  usually  perplexing  problems.  The  book  is  the  most  compre- 
hensive work  published  on  the  subject.  304  pages.  300  illustrations.  Price  .  .  $4.00 

MODERN   MECHANISM.     Edited  by  PARK  BENJAMIN. 

A  practical  treatise  on  machines,  motors  and  the  transmission  of  power,  being  a  complete 
work  and  a  supplementary  volume  to  Appleton's  Cyclopedia  of  Applied  Mechanics.  Deals 
solely  with  the  principal  and  most  useful  advances  of  the  past  few  years.  959  pages  contain- 
ing over  1,000  illustrations;  bound  in  half  morocco $4.00 

"SHOP  KINKS."     By  ROBERT  GRIMSHAW. 

A  book  of  400  pages  and  222  illustrations,  being  entirely  different  from  any  other  book  on 
machine  shop  practice.  Departing  from  conventional  style,  the  author  avoids  universal  or 
common  shop  usage  and  limits  his  work  to  showing  special  ways  of  doing  things  better,  more 
cheaply  and  more  rapidly  than  usual.  As  a  result  the  advanced  methods  of  representative 
establishments  of  the  world  are  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  reader.  This  book  shows  the 
proprietor  where  large  savings  are  possible,  and  now  products  may  be  improved.  To  the 
employee  it  holds  out  suggestipns  that,  properly  applied,  will  hasten  his  advancement.  No 
shop  can  afford  to  be  without  it.  It  bristles  with  valuable  wrinkles  and  helpful  suggestions. 
It  will  benefit  all,  from  apprentice  to  proprietor.  Every  machinist,  at  any  age,  should  study 
its  pages.  Fifth  Edition.  Price ,  .  $2.50 

THREADS  AND  THREAD  CUTTING.     By  COLVIN  and  STABEL. 

This  clears  up  many  of  the  mysteries  of  thread-cutting,  such  as  double  and  triple  threads, 
internal  threads,  catching  threads,  use  of  hobs,  etc.  Contains  a  lot  of  useful  hints  and  several 
tables.  Price .25  cents 

TOOLS    FOR    MACHINISTS    AND    WOOD    WORKERS,    INCLUDING    INSTRUMENTS 
OF  MEASUREMENT.     By  JOSEPH  G.  HORNER. 

The  principles  upon  which  cutting  tools  for  wood,  metal,  and  other  substances  are  made  are 
identical,  whether  used  by  the  machinist,  the  carpenter,  or  by  any  other  skilled  mechanic  in 
their  daily  work,  and  the  object  of  this  book  is  to  give  a  correct  and  practical  description  of 
these  tools  as  they  are  commonly  designed,  constructed,  and  used.  340  pages,  fully  illustrated. 
Price $3.50 

MANUAL   TRAINING 


ECONOMICS   OF   MANUAL   TRAINING.     By  Louis  ROUILLION. 

The  only  book  published  that  gives  just  the  information  needed  by  all  interested  in  Manual 
Training,  regarding  Buildings,  Equipment,  and  Supplies.  Shows  exactly  what  is  needed  for 
ail  grades  of  the  work  from  the  Kindergarten  to  the  High  and  Normal  School.  Gives  item- 
ized lists  of  everything  used  in  Manual  Training  Work  and  tells  just  what  it  ought  to  cost. 
Also  shows  where  to  buy  supplies,  etc.  Contains  L174  pages,  and  is  fully  illustrated. 
Price $1.50 

MARINE  ENGINEERING 

MARINE    ENGINES    AND    BOILERS,    THEIR    DESIGN    AND    CONSTRUCTION.     By 
DR.  G.  BAUER,  LESLIE  S.  ROBERTSON,  and  S.  BRYAN  DONKIN. 

In  the  words  of  Dr.  Bauer,  the  present  work  owes  its  origin  to  an  oft  felt  want  of  a  Condensed 
Treatise,  embodying  the  Theoretical  and  Practical  Rules  used  in  Designing  Marine  Engines 
and  Boilers.  The  need  for  such  a  work  has  been  felt  by  most  engineers  engaged  in  the  con- 
struction and  working  of  Marine  Engines,  not  only  by  the  younger  men,  but  also  by  those  of 
greater  experience.  The  fact  that  the  original  German  work  was  written  by  the  chief  engineer 
of  the  famous  Vulcan  Works,  Stettin,  is  in  itself  a  guarantee  that  this  book  is  in  all  respects 
thoroughly  up-to-date,  and  that  it  embodies  all  the  information  which  is  necessary  for  the 
design  and  construction  of  the  highest  types  of  marine  engines  and  boilers.  It  may  be  said, 
that  the  motive  power  which  Dr.  Bauer  has  placed  in  the  fast  German  liners  that  have  been 
turned  out  of  late  years  from  the  Stettin  Works,  represent  the  very  best  practice  in  marine 
engineering  of  the  present  day. 

This  work  is  clearly  written,  thoroughly  systematic,  theoretically  sound;  while  the  character 
of  its  plans,  drawings,  tables,  and  statistics  is  without  reproach.  The  illustrations  are  care- 
ful reproductions  from  actual  working  drawings,  with  some  well-executed  photographic  views 
of  completed  engines  and  boilers.  722  pages.  550  illustrations.  .  .  .  $9.00  not 

16 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 


MINING 


ORE    DEPOSITS,  WITH    A    CHAPTER    ON    HINTS    TO    PROSPECTORS.     By  J.  P. 

JOHNSON. 

This  book  gives  a  condensed  account  of  the  ore-deposits  at  present  known  in  South  Africa. 
It  is  also  intended  as  a  guide  to  the  prospector.  Only  an  elementary  knowledge  of  geology 
and  some  mining  experience  are  necessary  in  order  to  understand  this  work.  With  these 
qualifications,  it  will  materially  assist  one  in  his  search  for  metalliferous  mineral  occurrences 
and,  so  far  as  simple  ores  are  concerned,  should  enable  one  to  form  some  idea  of  the  possi- 
bilities of  any  they  may  find. 

Among  the  chapters  given  are:  Titaniferous  and  Chromiferous  Iron  Oxides — Nickel — Cop- 
per— Cobalt — Tin — Molybdenum — Tungsten — Lead — Mercury — Antimony — Iron — Hints  to 
Prospectors .  .  ' $2.00 

PRACTICAL    COAL  MINING.     By  T.  H.  COCKIN. 

An  important  work,  containing  428  pages  and  213  illustrations,  complete  with  practical  de- 
tails, which  will  intuitively  impart  to  the  reader,  not  only  a  general  knowledge  of  the  princi- 
ples of  coal  mining,  but  also  considerable  insight  into  allied  subjects.  The  treatise  is  posi- 
tively up  to  date  in  every  instance,  and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  C9lliery  engineer, 
geologist,  mine  operator,  superintendent,  foreman,  and  all  others  who  are  interested  in  or 
connected  with  the  industry ...  $2.5O 

PHYSICS   AND   CHEMISTRY   OF  MINING.     By  T.  H.  BYROM. 

A  practical  work  for  the  use  of  all  preparing  for  examinations  in  mining  or  qualifying  for 
colliery  managers'  certificates.  The  aim  of  the  author  in  this  excellent  book  is  to  place  clearly 
before  the  reader  useful  and  authoritative  data  which  will  render  him  valuable  assistance  in 
his  studies.  The  only  work  of  its  kind  published.  The  information  inc9rporated  in  it  will 
prove  of  the  greatest  practical  utility  to  students,  mining  engineers,  colliery  managers,  and 
all  others  who  are  specially  interested  in  the  present-day  treatment  of  mining  problems. 
Among  its  contents  are  chapters  on:  The  Atmosphere;  Laws  Relating  to  the  Behavior  of 
Gases;  The  Diffusion  of  Gases;  Composition  of  the  Atmosphere:  Sundry  Constituents  of  the 
Atmosphere;  Water;  Carbon;  Fire-Damp;  Combustion;  Coal  Dust  and  Its  Action;  Ex- 
plosives; Composition  of  Various  Coals  and  Fuels;  Methods  of  Analysis  of  Coal;  Strata  Ad- 
joining the  Coal  Measures;  Magnetism  and  Electricity;  Appendix;  Useful  Tables,  etc.; 
Miscellaneous  Questions.  160  pages.  Illustrated .  $2.00 


PATTERN  MAKING 


PRACTICAL  PATTERN  MAKING.     By  F.  W.  BARROWS. 

This  is  a  very  complete  and  entirely  practical  treatise  on  the  subject  of  pattern  making,  illus 
t rating  pattern  work  in  wood  and  metal.  From  its  pages  you  are  taught  just  what  you  shoult 
know  about  pattern  making.  It  contains  a  detailed  description  of  the  materials  used  bj 
pattern  makers,  also  the  tools,  both  those  for  hand  use,  and  the  more  interesting  machine  tools; 
having  complete  chapters  on  the  band  saw,  The  Buzz  Saw,  and  the  Lathe.  Individual  patterns 
of  many  different  kinds  are  fully  illustrated  and  described,  and  the  mounting  of  metal  patterns 
on  plates  for  molding  machines  is  included.  Price $2.00 


PERFUMERY 


HENLEY'S  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  RECEIPTS,  FORMULAS  AND  PROCESSES 

Edited  by  G.  D.  Hiscox. 

The  most  valuable  Technq-chemical  Receipt  Book  published.  Contains  over  10,000  practical 
receipts,  many  of  which'  will  prove  of  special  value  to  the  perfumer,  a  mine  of  information,  up- 
to-date  in  every  respect.  Price,  Cloth,  $3.00:  half  morocco $4.0O 


PERFUMES   AND   THEIR   PREPARATION.     By  G.  W.  ASKINSON,  Perfumer. 

A  comprehensive  treatise,  in  which  there  has  been  nothing  omitted  that  could  be  of  value 
to  the  Perfumer.  Complete  directions  for  making  handkerchief  perfumes,  smelling-salts, 
sachets,  fumigating  pastilles;  preparations  for  the  care  of  the  skin,  the  mouth,  the  hair,  cos- 
metics, hair  dyes  and  other  toilet  articles  are  given,  also  a  detailed  description  of  aromatic 
substances;  their  nature,  tests  of  purity,  and  wholesale  manufacture.  A  book  of  general, 
as  well  as  professional  interest,  meeting  the  wants  not  only  of  the  druggist  and  perfume  man- 
ufacturer, out  also  of  the  general  public.  Third  edition.  312  pages.  Illustrated.  .  $3.00 

17 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 


PLUMBING 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING  FOR  PLUMBERS.     By  R.M.  STARBUCK. 

A  concise,  comprehensive  and  practical  treatise  on  the  subject  of  mechanical  drawing  in  its 
various  modern  applications  to  the  work  of  all  who  are  in  any  way  connected  with  the 
plumbing  trade.  Nothing  will  so  help  the  plumber  in  estimating  and  in  explaining  work  to 
customers  and  workmen  as  a  knowledge  of  drawing,  and  to  the  workman  it  is  of  inestimable 
value  if  he  is  to  rise  above  his  position  to  positions  of  greater  responsibility.  150  illustra- 
tions. Price $1.50 

MODERN  PLUMBING  ILLUSTRATED.     By  R.  M.  STARBUCK. 

This  book  represents  the  highest  standard  of  plumbing  work.  It  has  been  adopted  and  used  as  a 
reference  book  by  the  United  States  Government,  in  its  sanitary  work  in  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and 
the  Philippines,  and  by  the  principal  Boards  of  Health  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
It  gives  connections,  sizes  and  working  data  for  all  fixtures  and  groups  of  fixtures.  It  is 
helpful  to  the  master  plumber  in  demonstrating  to  his  customers  and  in  figuring  work.  It 
gives  the  mechanic  and  student  quick  and  easy  access  to  the  best  modern  plumbing  practice. 
Suggestions  for  estimating  plumbing  construction  are  contained  in  its  pages.  This  book 
represents,  in  a  word,  the  latest  and  best  up-to-date  practice,  and  should  be  in  the  hands  of 
every  architect,  sanitary  engineer  and  plumber  who  wishes  to  keep  himself  up  to  the  minute 
on  this  important  feature  of  construction.  400  octavo  pages,  fully  illustrated  by  55  full-page 
engravings.  Price $4.00 

STANDARD  PRACTICAL  PLUMBING.     By  R.  M.  STARBUCK. 

A  complete  practical  treatise  of  450  pages  covering  the  subject  of  Modern  Plumbing  in  all  its 
Branches,  a  large  amount  of  space  being  devoted  to  a  very  complete  and  practical  treatment  of 
the  subject  of  Hot  Water  Supply  and  Circulation  and  Range  Boiler  Work.  Its  thirty  chapters 
include  about  every  phase  of  the  subject,  one  can  think  of,  making  it  an  indispensable  work 
to  the  master  plumber,  the  journeyman  plumber,  and  the  apprentice  plumber.  Fully  illus- 
trated by  347  engravings.  Price .  $3.00 

RECEIPT  BOOK 

HENLEY'S  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  RECEIPTS,  FORMULAS  AND  PROCESSES. 

Edited  by  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox. 

The  most  valuable  Techno-chemical  Receipt  Book  published,  including  over  10,000  selected 
scientific,  chemical,  technological,  and  practical  receipts  and  processes. 

This  is  the  most  complete  Book  of  Receipts  ever  published,  giving  thousands  of  receipts  for 
the  manufacture  of  valuable  articles  for  everyday  use.  Hints,  Helps,  Practical  Ideas,  and 
Secret  Processes  are  revealed  within  its  pages.  It  covers  every  branch  of  the  useful  arts  and 
tells  thousands  of  ways  of  making  money  and  is  just  the  book  everyone  should  have  at  his 
command.  800  pages.  Price $3.00 

RUBBER 


RUBBER    HAND    STAMPS    AND    THE   MANIPULATION    OF   INDIA   RUBBER.     By 
T.  O'CoNOR  SLOANE. 

This  book  gives  full  details  on  all  points,  treating  in  a  concise  and  simple  manner  the  elements 
of  nearly  everything  it  is  necessary  to  understand  for  a  commencement  in  any  branch  of  the 
India  Rubber  Manufacture.  The  making  of  all  kinds  of  Rubber  Hand  Stamps,  Small  Articles 
of  India  Rubber,  U.  S.  Government  Composition,  Dating  Hand  Stamps,  the  Manipulation 
of  Sheet  Rubber,  Toy  Balloons,  India  Rubber  Solutions,  Cements,  Blackings,  Renovating 
Varnish,  and  Treatment  for  India  Rubber  Shoes,  etc.;  the  Hektograph  Stamp  Inks,  and 
Miscellaneous  Notes,  with  a  Short  Account  9f  the  Discovery,  Collection,  and  Manufacture  of 
India  Rubber  are  set  forth  in  a  manner  designed  to  be  readily  understood,  the  explanations 
being  plain  and  simple.  Second  edition.  144  pages.  Illustrated.  ......  $1.00 

SAWS 

SAW  FILINGS  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  SAWS.    By  ROBERT  GRIMSHAW. 

A  practical  hand  book  on  filing,  gumming,  swaging,  hammering,  and  the  brazing  of  band  saws, 
the  speed,  work,  and  power  to  run  circular  saws,  etc.  A  handy  book  for  those  who  have  charge 
of  saws,  or  for  those  mechanics  who  do  their  own  filing,  as  it  deals  with  the  proper  shape  and 
pitches  of  saw  teeth  of  all  kinds  and  gives  many  useful  hints  and  rules  for  gumming,  setting, 
and  filing,  and  is  a  practical  aid  to  those  who  use  saws  for  any  purpose.  New  edition,  revised 
and  enlarged  Illsutrated,  Price ...  ,  $1.00 

18 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 


STEAM  ENGINEERING 

AMERICAN  STATIONARY  ENGINEERING.     By  W.  E.  CRANE. 

;  This  book  begins  at  the  boiler  room  and  takes  in  the  whole  power  plant.  A  plain  talk  om 
every-day  work  about  engines,  boilers,  and  their  accessories.  It  is  not  intended  to  be  scien- 
tific or  mathematical.  All  formulas  are  in  simple  form  so  that  any  one  understanding  plain 
arithmetic  can  readily  understand  any  of  them.  The  author  has  made  this  the  most  prac- 
tical book  in  print;  has  given  the  results  of  his  years  of  experience,  and  has  included  about 
all  that  has  to  do  with  an  engine  room  or  a  power  plant.  You  are  not  left  to  guess  at  a  single 
point.  You  are  shown  clearly  what  to  expect  under  the  various  conditions;  how  to  secure 
the-best  results;  ways  of  preventing  "shut  downs"  and  repairs;  in  short,  all  that  goes  to 
make  up  the  requirements  of  a  good  engineer,  capable  of  taking  charge  of  a  plant.  It's  plain 
enough  for  practical  men  and  yet  of  value  to  those  high  in  the  profession.  Has  a  complete 
examination  for  a  license $2.00 

EMINENT   ENGINEERS.     By  DWIGHT  GODDARD. 

Everyone  who  appreciates  the  effect  of  such  great  inventions  as  the  Steam  Engine,  Steamboat, 
Locomotive,  Sewing  Machine,  Steel  Working,  and  other  fundamental  discoveries,  is  interested 
in  knowing  a  little  about  the  men  who  made  them  and  their  achievements. 
Mr.  Goddard  has  selected  thirty-two  of  the  world's  engineers  who  have  contributed  most 
largely  to  the  advancement  of  our  civilization  by  mechanical  means,  giving  only  such  facts  as 
are  of  general  interest  and  in  a  way  which  appeals  to  all,  whether  mechanics  or  not.  280 
pages.  35  illustrations.  Price $1.50 

ENGINE  RUNNER'S  CATECHISM.     By  ROBERT  GRIMSHAW. 

A  practical  treatise  for  the  stationary  engineer,  telling  how  to  erect,  adjust  and  run  the  prin- 
cipal steam  engines  in  use  in  the  United  States.  Describing  the  principal  features  of  various 
special  and  well-known  makes  of  engines:  Temper  Cut-off,  Shipping  and  Receiving  Founda- 
tions, Erecting  and  Starting,  Valve  Setting,  Care  and  Use,  Emergencies,  Erecting  and  Ad- 
justing Special  Engines. 

The  questions  asked  throughout  the  catechism  are  plain  and  to  the  point  ^and  the  answers 
are  given  in  such  simple  language  as  to  be  readily  understood  by  anyone.  All  the  instructions 
given  are  complete  and  up-to-date;  and  they  are  written  in  a  popular  style,  without  any 
technicalities  or  mathematical  formulae.  The  work  is  of  a  handy  size  for  the  pocket,  clearly 
and  well  printed,  nicely  bound,  and  profusely  illustrated.  To  young  engineers  this  catechism 
will  be  of  great  value,  especially  to  those  who  may  be  preparing  to  go  forward  to  be  examined 
for  certificates  of  competency;  and  to  engineers  generally  it  will  be  of  no  little  service,  as  they 
will  find  in  this  volume  more  really  practical  and  useful  information  than  is  to  be  found  any- 
where else  within  a  like  compass.  387  pages.  Seventh  edition.  Price $2.00 

ENGINE  TESTS   AND  BOILER   EFFICIENCIES.     By  J.  BUCHETTI. 

This  work  fully  describes  and  illustrates  the  method  of  testing  the  power  of  steam  engines, 
turbines  and  explosive  motors.  The  properties  of  steam  and  the  evaporative  power  of  fuels. 
Combustion  of  fuel  and  chimney  draft;  with  formulas  explained  or  practically  computed. 
255  pages,  179  illustrations $3.00 

HORSE  POWER   CHART. 

Shows  the  horse  power  of  any  stationary  engine  without  calculation.  No  matter  what  the 
cylinder  diameter  of  stroke;  the  steam  pressure  or  cut-off;  the  revolutions,  or  whether  con- 
densing or  non-condensing,  it's  all  there.  Easy  to  use,  accurate,  and  saves  time  and  calcu- 
lations. Especially  useful  to  engineers  and  designers 50  cents 

MODERN  STEAM  ENGINEERING  IN  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE.     By  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox 

This  is  a  complete  and  practical  work  issued  for  Stationary  Engineers  and  firemen  dealing  with 
the  care  and  management  of  boilers,  engines,  pumps,  superheated  steam,  refrigerating  machin- 
ery, dynamos,  motors,  elevators,  air  compressors,  and  all  other  branches  with  which  the  modern 
engineer  must  be  familiar.  Nearly  200  questions  with  their  answers  on  steam  and  electrical 
engineering,  likely  to  be  asked  by  the  Examining  Board,  are  included.  487  pages.  405  en- 
gravings. Price $3.00 

STEAM  ENGINE  CATECHISM.    By  ROBERT  GRIMSHAW. 

This  unique  volume  of  413  pages  is  not  only  a  catechism  on  the  question  and  answer  princi- 
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indispensable  to  every  engineer  and  fireman  that  wishes  to  be  progressive  and  is  ambitious  to 
become  master  of  his  calling  are  within  its  pages.  It  is  a  most  valuable  instructor  in  the 
service  of  Steam  Engineering.  Leading  engineers  have  recommended  it  as  a  valuable  educa- 
tor for  the  beginner  as  well  as  a  reference  book  for  the  engineer.  It  is  thoroughly  indexed 
for  every  detail.  Every  essential  question  on  the  Steam  Engine  with  its  answer  is  contained 
in  this  valuable  work.  Sixteenth  edition.  Price $2.0O 


CATALOGUE  OF  GOOD,  PRACTICAL  BOOKS 

STEAM  ENGINEER'S  ARITHMETIC.     By  COLVIN-CHENEY. 

A  practical  pocket  book  for  the  steam  engineer.  Shows  how  to  work  the  problems  of  the 
engine  room  and  shows  "why."  Tells  how  to  figure  horse-power  of  engines  and  boilers;  area 
of  boilers ;  has  tables  of  areas  and  circumferences ;  steam  tables ;  has  a  dictionary  of  engineering 
terms  Puts  you  on  to  all  all  of  the  little  kinks  in  figuring  whatever  there  is  to  figure  around 
a  power  plant  Tells  you  about  the  heat  unit;  absolute  zero;  adiabatic  expansion;  duty  of 
engines;  factor  of  safety;  and  1,001  other  things;  and  everything  is  plain  and  simple — not 
the  hardest  way  to  figure,  but  the  easiest 50  cents 

STEAM   HEATING  AND   VENTILATION 

PRACTICAL  STEAM,  HOT- WATER  HEATING  AND  VENTILATION.     By  A.  G.  KING. 

This  book  is  the  standard  and  latest  work  published  on  the  subject  and  has  been  prepared  for 
the  use  of  all  engaged  in  the  business  of  steam,  hot  water  heating,  and  ventilation.  It  is  an 
original  and  exhaustive  work.  Tells  how  to  get  heating  contracts,  how  to  install  heating  and 
ventilating  apparatus,  the  best  business  methods  to  be  used,  with  "Tricks  of  the  Trade"  for 
shop  use.  Rules  and  data  for  estimating  radiation  and  cost  and  such  tables  and  information 
as  make  it  an  indispensable  work  for  everyone  interested  in  steam,  hot  water  heating,  and  venti- 
lation. It  describes  all  the  principal  systems  of  steam,  hot  water,  vacuum,  vapor,  and  vacuum- 
vapor  heating,  together  with  the  new  accelerated  systems  of  hot  water  circulation,  including 
chapters  on  up-to-date  methods  of  ventilation  and  the  fan  or  blower  system  of  heating  and 
ventilation.  367  pages.  300  detailed  engravings.  Price $3.0O 

STEAM  PIPES 


STEAM   PIPES:    THEIR  DESIGN   AND   CONSTRUCTION.     By  WM.  H.  BOOTH. 

This  book  fills  in  a  deep  gap  in  scientific  literature,  as  there  has  been  very  little  written  on 
the  practical  side  of  steam  pipe  construction.  Steam  piping  to-day  is  such  a  costly  item, 
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minimum  cost  and  maximum  efficiency  becomes  very  important.  The  work  is  well  illus- 
trated in  regard  to  pipe  joints,  expansion  pffsets,  flexible  joints,  and  self-contained  sliding 
joints  for  taking  up  the  expansion  of  long  pipes.  In  fact,  the  chapters  on  the  flow  of  steam 
and  expansion  of  pipes  are  most  valuable  to  all  steam  fitters  and  users.  The  pressure  strength 
of  pipes  and  method  of  hanging  them  is  well  treated  and  illustrated.  Valves  and  by-passes 
are  fully  illustrated  and  described,  as  are  also  flange  joints  and  their  proper  proportions,  ex- 
haust heads  and  separators.  One  of  the  most  valuable  chapters  is  that  on  superheated  steam 
and  the  saving  of  steam  by  insulation  with  the  various  kinds  of  felting  and  other  materials 
with  comparison  tables  of  the  loss  of  heat  in  thermal  units  from  naked  and  felted  steam  pipes. 
Contains  187  pages.  Price  .  .  ;  .  . $2.00 

STEEL 


AMERICAN  STEEL  WORKER.     By  E.  R.  MAKKHAM. 

This  book  tells  how  to  select,  and  how  to  work,  temper,  harden,  and  anneal  steel  for  everything 
on  earth.  It  doesn't  tell  how  to  temper  one  class  of  tools  and  then  leave  the  treatment  of 
another  kind  of  tool  to  your  imagination  and  judgment,  but  it  gives  careful  instructions  for 
every  detail  of  every  tool,  whether  it  be  a  tap,  a  reamer  or  just  a  screw-driver.  It  tells  about 
the  tempering  of  small  watch  springs,  the  hardening  of  cutlery;  and  the  annealing  of  dies.  In 
fact  there  isn't  a  thing  that  a  steel  worker  would  want  to  know  that  isn't  included.  Price 

$2.50 

HARDENING,  TEMPERING,  ANNEALING,  AND  FORGING  OF  STEEL.     By  J.  V,  WOOD- 
WORTH. 

A  new  work  treating  in  a  clear,  concise  manner  all  modern  processes  for  the  heating,  annealing, 
forging,  welding,  hardening,  and  tempering  of  steel,  making  it  a  book  of  great  practical  value 
to  the  metal-working  mechanic  in  general,  with  special  directions  for  the  successful  hardening 
and  tempering  of  all  steel  tools  used  in  the  arts,  including  milling  cutters,  taps,  thread  dies, 
reamers,  both  solid  and  shell,  hollow  mills,  punches  and  dies,  and  all  kinds  of  sheet  metal 
working  tools,  shear  blades,  saws,  fine  cutlery,  and  metal  cutting  tools  of  all  description,  an 
well  as  for  all  implements  of  steel  both  large  and  small.  In  this  work  the  simplest  and  most 
satisfactory  hardening  and  tempering  processes  are  given. 

The  uses  to  which  the  leading  brands  of  steel  may  be  adapted  are  concisely  presented,  and  their 
treatment  for  working  under  different  conditions  explained,  also  the  special  methods  for  the 
hardening  and  tempering  of  special  brands. 

A  chapter  devoted  to  the  different  processes  for  Case-hardening  is  also  included,  and  special 
reference  made  to  the  adoption  of  machinery  steel  for  tools  of  various  kinds.  Price  .  $2.50 

WATCH  MAKING 


WATCHMAKER'S  HANDBOOK.     By  CLAUDIUS  SAUNIER. 

This  famous  work  has  now  reached  its  seventh  edition  and  there  is  no  work  issued  that  can 
compare  to  it  for  clearness  and  completeness.  It  contains  498  pages  and  is  intended  as  a 
workshop  companion  for  those  engaged  in  Watch-making  and  allied  Mechanical  Arts.  Nearly 
250  engravings  and  fourteen  plates  are  included.  Price ,  $6.00 


2O 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFOF 


*,'  v  f. 


